Paris Garbage Transport via Inland Waterways Essay

Paris Garbage Transport via Inland Waterways - Essay Example Selection of an environmental friendly method for waste transportation becomes necessary for such a situation. For better understanding of the whole process of garbage transport through inland waterways, we can select the port of Lille in France. All the collected waste are not transported, instead a part is processed where it has been created especially for agriculture, mining and construction. Household wastes are put into 20 open top containers having capacity of 10 tons per container in the Collection Centre of Sequedin. The containers are transported from Sequedin to the 3km distant Port of Lille by truck. With the Ampiroll system containers are released on the terminal by the truck itself. Containers are loaded into the barge by the scaffold crane. The barge navigates to the landfill site of Blaringhem which is at a distance of 63 km. In Blaringhem, containers are unloaded by a super stacker and cleared in the spot. Empty containers are loaded into the barge and the vessel returns in the opposite direction. Since June 1999, estimatedly 76 000 Teu's were transported this way. In 2005, t he 7 314 containers transported this way reduced the quantity of CO produced through the transport by half and the quantity of energy consummation by one third. Recycling, reuse and valorizing waste is good for environment. The process of garbage disposal through waterways is more environmental friendly as it needs less land filling, less wasting of money and less consumption of natural resources. Also Inland Ports have the experience of terminals with up to date material and large traffic management.Cities and services in charge of waste have skills for waste collection, waste processing and waste valorization. Inlands Ports can be reliable and competent partners for companies or organizations that are in charge of waste management. Syctom in Paris, a household waste treatment company managing 2.5 milliontons/year of municipal solid waste in the Paris area for the past 10 years has encouraged sustainable transport solutions for the huge waste flows generated by an urban region like Paris. Its contract passed with the paper company UPM Kymmene is a unique and fine example of an innovating solution. Shipping waste consisting of collected old newspapers and magazines for recycling to Grand-Couronne has been in operation since 2005 with an 800 tones motor barge outfitted with an onboard crane. Now UPM Kymmene will send the newly manufactured paper rolls by ship to Paris and will be used to print daily newspapers and magazines. This 1,800 tones vessel takes on board 30'45 ft pallet wide' containers to and from Grand-Couronne and operates twice a week. The operation substitutes 4,200 truck movements and this volume is set to go up. Paris is conducting a pilot study to examine the prospect of transporting recyclable glass using inland waterway transport. Every year, 2,500 truck movements are necessary to transport glass collected from public glass deposit bins to the processing center in Rozet Saint-Albin, in Aisne. A first test using river transport as a substitute was carried out between Gennevilliers and the processing center through the port of Soissons along the Seine and the Oise. Currently Paris transports more than 2.5 million tones of wasteby river, among which are ashes, papers, plastics, and bulk, industrialand building material waste. In February 2005, The Council of

Communication Leaflet Essay Example for Free

Communication Leaflet Essay Idea occurs: this is when you think of an idea that you want to communicate. We all communicate for a reason, which is usually to pass on information to another person. Message coded: once we have thought of an idea we compose this within our thoughts, how we are going to say our idea to the recipient in a way the recipient will understand. For example, is the message going to be spoken to them, do they speak English. Is the message going to written down for them or are we going to use sign language, if so, what signs are we going to use to portray our message. Message sent: idea/message sent to the recipient. Message received: message is received by the other person. The recipient senses they have a message, for example either by seeing the message you’re signing or have written to them or hearing the message you’re speaking to them. Message decoded: recipient looks at the message and has to process what you have communicated for them to understand what has been spoken, signed or written, the message could be misunderstood easily by interpreting words differently. Message understood: the message has been received, decoded and understood by the recipient. If it has been communicated clearly, for example if there were no barriers within the communication cycle, the recipient will show their understanding by replying to your message. As the conversation continues, the sender of the message will then become the receiver of the replied message and so on and so on. Example of a message being sent using the Communication Cycle. The cycle will only continue if both parties understand what one another are sending, they can only do this by listening and processing what is being sent, understand then you can reply appropriately. In the communication cycle, things don’t always go smoothly and communication can break down when the cycle is broken. The cycle can break if the sender is unclear when they are sending their message or the receiver can misunderstand the message due to other distractions and then assume something else was being sent. Working in health and social care, your communicational skills are one of the most important skills you’ll need and use everyday. When communicating with patients/service users it is important they understand what discussions are taking place so they can join in them and it is equally as important for you to understand them so you know what they need and the choices they want to make. Communication barriers There are so many barriers that could affect communication between people. For example: Noisy surroundings: these can be a barrier as you may not be hear what is being spoken over the noise. For example, The manager of a care home was having a staff meeting when they were distracted with a noisy drilling and hammering sounds from workmen using loud tools in the room next door.. To overcome a noisy distraction you could ask the workmen how long they are going to be and if it isn’t too long you may take a break or postpone your meeting until they have finished. You could ask if they could delay theirs works for the remainder of your meeting. If this is not possible, rearrange your meeting for a later day, move room location for the remainder of the meeting. Disabilities: A physically disabled person attending their eye appointment and there is no lift at the opticians. To overcome this barrier you would enquire to see if the have another means to transporting the service user up the stairs and if this was not possible, enquire if the appointment could take place downstairs and if this was not possible, arrange an appointment where they can accommodate a wheelchair. Cultural differences: same meaning but different beliefs in different cultures. For example, eye contact when initially greeting some cultures is important but continuing eye contact is seen as a sign of disrespect. Some cultures like you to introduce yourself, they like a smile and a shake of hands. They are particular with the way they shake hands, extend the hand out and gently touch the other person’s hand, they don’t like the strong grasping shake of hands that the some cultures have. Bad lighting: bad lighting can be a distraction for example, someone who is visually impaired and wears glasses is at a meeting and the bright florescent lights are reflecting off their lenses or flickering distracting their sight. To overcome this barrier, you would enquire of any disabilities people may have, such as visual impairments or epilepsy and would not use lighting that will affect their condition or change room locations if the problem of flickering lights persists. Jargon: is technical terminology used by professionals for example, when a doctor uses full medical terminology when speaking to a service user and they do not explain what they mean in a way the service user can understand. Slang: is wording and phrases that are used by service users that could have several ways of being misinterpreted by others, for example, the elder service users may say they have water problems, and they are meaning they have toileting problems, we may think they mean tap water problems. Slang can be used when all parties understand. Language barriers: someone who doesn’t speak in a language you understand, for example, they are foreign or they can only communicate with sign language. To overcome a language barrier, enquire what language they communicate and have in place a signer if needed or a translator. Body language: is an aid to expressing what we want to communicate, verbally and none verbally. Body language that can be misinterpreted, for example, a manager stood at their office door with their arms folded may be seen as they are angry when really they are stood there listening as they are waiting for a visitor. Aggression: an aggressive attitude is often a barrier as this behaviour is frightening to others and can be intimidating. Mobile phones: ringing at the wrong time, for example, you are at Sunday mass with a service user and whilst your at the alter with the service user, your mobile phone rings. To ensure mobile phones do not ring, put signs in place to ask people to kindly turn their mobiles on silent if they cannot turn them off for any reason.

Con Air Worldview :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When looking through many different movies, and lyrics I chose the movie Con Air, starring Nicolas Cage. Cage portrays Cameron Poe, an ex Army ranger who has just returned from the Gulf war. Right from the start Poe is faced with adversity. His return was not what he had hoped for. After he had spent time with his wife, Poe decided to call it a night, however a local gang decided to start a fight while they were leaving the parking lot. Poe easily wins the fight due to having such extent training in the military. After the brutal fight scene, he ended up killing one of the assailants on accident. This is where the movie takes a sudden turn for Poe. He is charged for that act, even though it was in self-defense. We next find Poe at a high-security prison where he is to spend the next 7 years. Throughout that time we learn about his new daughter Kaci who is Poe’s major purpose for getting out of jail. He gains a new friend in his cellmate Baby-O. After many years in prison, Poe learns that his pardon was granted; all that separates him from being with his family is one flight. Little did he know the plane would be filled with crazed convicts trying to overtake the plane.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For the most part, the entire movie portrays a worldview similar to that of the Naturalist stance. Excluding Poe and Baby-O, the entire cast doesn’t even acknowledge God. Many times the two friends are faced with difficult situations. When Poe was about to leave prison, Baby-O asks who will watch his back Poe replies God will. In another scene, Baby-O is shot through a struggle on the plane. He then questions Poe about if there is a God. His answer, I’m going to show you that God does exist! These two take a very theistic view towards God, although they don’t admit to being a Christian, they do acknowledge â€Å"a† God of some form. The entire â€Å"gang† of convicts follows a naturalist worldview exactly. There is no God; they can altar their own destiny. This is very evident throughout the entire movie. The character that portrays the naturalist world best would be Cyrus Grissom, the leader of the renegade convicts. Cyrus feels that he has total control over every situation. God doesn’t exist; therefore humans act as supernatural beings.

“No One’s a Mystery”

Jessica Ulrich Essay 2 Intro to Literature The story I am completing and analyzing is â€Å"No One's a Mystery† by Elizabeth Tallent. â€Å"No One's a Mystery† is a brief, sharply detailed distillation of a doomed relationship between two people of contrasting personalities. The question I ask is who the characters are, and what parts of the story lead me to deem and back up my feelings about that certain character. To start off I feel that Jack is a hard one to analyze while reading it in a critical way.This is what I picked up on him Jack being a very cynical man who drinks heavily, doesn't clean his truck, and has no obvious respect for women (Mexomorph). Jack and his young lover not only come to terms with their relationship but also illuminate aspects of their own characters of which they themselves are not fully aware. The story is more of a character sketch than a traditional tale containing a beginning, middle, and an end. The sequence of events is less importan t than the specific detail and the dialogue between the couple. Esch, 2009) He is currently cheating on his wife with a barely-legal girl he has been having an affair with since she was sixteen. I think he is a man who doesn’t know what he wants. In the story when she is talking about marrying him and having his children down the road, he doesn’t seem to be much for it at least not as much as her. I think he really feels bad for what he is doing but he is caught up in the moment of the relationship and how easy it is, but doesn’t think through the consequences.I think he drinks so much to forget about what he is doing to his wife and he knows it is wrong, so drinking helps him cope with the last 2 years of having an affair, and soon to be a divorce that he states at the end of the story. He also seems to very demeaning towards women and it seems as if again he is not happy with his life he has lead on. Another thing is when he talks about his wife feeling safer when the lights are on when he's not home makes me think he still cares for her and is fine talking about her with his secret relationship in which she has no problem with him talking about.So again Jack is a hard one to understand but I think I got the gist of it. Aside from these generalities, he makes no judgments and demands no commitment, even mocking the narrator's version of their future together. His remark that the sky is empty carries a double meaning: In the context of the dialogue, Jack is referring to the absence of aircraft monitoring the speed of traffic, but in the light of his own character, it is a statement of unbelief, of detachment from social, emotional, and moral values.The young narrator, by contrast, has already acquired a set of values that make her a more sympathetic character. Her sharp eye for detail, her specific observations, lend her a solidity, a steadiness of purpose that is missing in Jack's life With all of this information I have gathered on the next character I would like to analyze would be the eighteen year old girl who is dating Jack. This eighteen year old girl seems to be very in love with Jack. She is planning their lives together with marriage and children.I feel that her character is an unsure about herself, or she hasn’t felt real love before and that’s why dating a married man and have it feel ok for her. Even though it doesn’t state much about their feelings on the relationships in the story I think it comes out the words they use within their conversation. The narrator counters to the contrary she will always love Jack. This exchange has some hidden meanings. The author is trying to show the reader that Jack knows they will not be together a year from then.The author is also trying to show the innocence and naivete of the girl in comparison to the knowledge of Jack. This diary encounter again brings out an emotional response in the reader by its imagery. When Jack mentions about how his wif e leaves the light on in the house because it helps her feel safer, it seems as if it doesn’t bother her talking about his wife, or having her duck in the truck when his wife passes alongside the road just so they don’t get caught. You think that would bug her with having to consistently hide from her especially since she is wanting and fantasizing about marrying him at age eighteen.I think she is deprived from having a relationship that can go to movies, dinner, hold hands in public, and been seen and known as a couple, and I think she feels some hurt due to the fact she knows it will never happen because when she talks about a year from now writing in her diary † I wonder what I really saw in Jack†, † I wonder why I spend so many day just riding in his truck†, or writing â€Å"I wonder what that old guys name was†. She states that she writes that but she will write â€Å"I love Jack and this diary is my birthday present from him. †Å"I can't imagine anybody loving anybody more than I love Jack. † So she goes back and forth of what she is feeling and what can happen in the future. She talks about not knowing Jack in a year but then also talks about having his kid and waiting for him to come home to make love to him. It was a very confusing ending with her and her feelings, very hard to read and interpret. I did get thought that both of them are caught up in the moment. That is what I felt the characters where, and what parts of the story lead me to deem and back up my feelings about that certain character.The visual and verbal images of this work are the key elements. The characters are not round characters but rather flat and stereotypical as the title No One's A Mystery suggests (Esch, 2009). But the way the characters are used, the straightforwardness of language and setting are meant to bring the reader to an emotional edge. The filthiness of the truck, the youth of the narrator and the exchange betwe en Jack and the girl over the diary help to reinforce the negative emotional response that the author was looking for.I wish this story was a little bit longer so it could help explain things that I thought had double meaning, but I like making up my own real end to the story and how I want to think of how those two ended up in a year. Works Cited Esch, J. (2009, Dec 4). Notearama. Retrieved from Notearama: http://notearama. blogspot. com/2009/12/on-no-ones-mystery-by-elizabeth-tallent. html Mexomorph. (n. d. ). Write Work. Retrieved from Write Work: http://www. writework. com/essay/no-one-s-mystery-elizabeth-tallent-english-1302-literature

Itchy and Scratchy cartoon Essay

The purpose of this study is to discuss the extent to which The Simpsons is representative of American family and social values. I will discuss how each member of the Simpsons family behaves, as well as highlighting what may be socially expected of them. Secondly, I will examine how the Simpsons family interacts with the surrounding community, concentrating particularly on the images that they portray. In order to do this, I will examine the regular codes and conventions of the series to show how the characters work together in the whole scheme of things Introduction Set in the north-western Illinois town of Springfield, The Simpsons is an animated sit-com about the day-to-day tribulations of a disfunctional lower-middle-class family. The main family itself consists of the father, Homer, his wife Marge, son Bart, and daughters Lisa and Maggie. Other family members include Homer’s father, Abraham Simpson, as well as Marge’s sisters, Patty and Selma. Occasionally, Marge’s mother, Mrs Bouvier, makes an appearance, and on one occasion, Homer discovered that he had an adopted older brother, Nigel. Since its official launch in 1989, The Simpsons has become one of the world’s most popular animated series, and has been enjoyed the world over by children and adult’s alike. Originally, the show occupied a space on the Tracey Ullman Show between 1987 and 1989, and was then called The Bart Simpson Show. Its immense popularity proved so great that Twentieth Century Fox decided it would be worthwhile to launch The Simpsons as a show in itself. In this format, the first episode was broadcast in 1989, and in this season there were thirteen episodes. In fact, the show was so immediately popular that a huge wave of cross-media production and merchandising took place, and this culminated in the release of a single, â€Å"Do The Bartman†, in early 1991. Other examples include toys, comics, and computer games But what is it about The Simpsons that continues to make it so popular? Is it Homer? Is it Bart? Or is it just the culmination of the shows different elements? These are some of the ideas I hope to cover in the course of this study. To this day, The Simpsons is still largely rated as the greatest of all the animated sit-coms. Since its release there has been a whole trail of subsequent cartoon impersonations, such as King of the Hill, South Park, Daria, and Beavis and Butthead. Unlike most cartoons, the comedy in The Simpsons is not based solely on situational comedy and site gags. The characters themselves make the comedy, with their personalities, their uniqueness, and their own personal points of view. Having such strong characters means that the writing can practically do itself, and that is one reason that The Simpsons has been able to endure for so many years. Innovative comedy, including the lack of a laugh track, makes The Simpsons one of the funniest shows on television. As well as this, a continual supply of hilariously stupid jokes also helps to keep the comedy running smoothly. For example, when Bart asked why he thought he was receiving money for nothing, Grandpa Simpson replied, â€Å"I just figured the democrats were back in office†. Also, when the zoo director is asked if he’s going to save Ned Flanders from baboons, he replies, â€Å"Ooh, I’d like to, but if they don’t kill the intruder, it’s really bad for their society. † These are just a few examples of Simpsons humour. Simpson family analysis Homer From the shows beginnings, Homer has been portrayed as a well-intentioned, yet moronic person. Homer’s virtually disabling stupidity is what makes him so funny. His job in the powerstation often provides much of the humour, as do his experiences at home and in Moe’s bar. In one episode, when Homer takes on a student from Albania as part of Bart’s foreign exchange programme, he takes him on a tour of the powerstation, unsuspicious of why a 10-year-old would show interest in such a tour. Later we find out through F. B. I. agents that the boy was actually a communist spy and Homer had unwittingly given him detailed plans of the station’s nuclear reactor as well as several sticks of plutonium. In another episode, Homer and Bart adopt a new son and brother respectively. In a subsequent fight scene with Bart’s new brother, Homer was punched in the face, and he fell and bent his back over a fire hydrant. To this he said, â€Å"This is even more painful then it looks†. Another facet of Homer’s persona is his love of food and beer. At work, Homer consumes unending amounts of donuts, whilst at home his passion is pork, whether it be pork-rinds, pork-steaks or pork-chops. Homer also has a famous passion for ‘Duff’ beer, which at one point became so extreme that Marge challenged him to give up alcohol for a month. And he did. In another episode, Homer sneaked out of work half-an-hour early just so he could take a tour around the ‘Duff’ factory. Here he managed to consume one casket each of several varieties of beer, just to find out the difference in taste. Thus, his stupidity, combined with an amazing luck, forms the basis for one of the funniest characters on television. Homer will manage to find the only way to completely ruin a situation and then, through sheer luck, he will find the only way to repair it. Indeed, he always manages to â€Å"pull a Homer. † Marge Marge is portrayed as the most straight-minded, straight-thinking member of the family. Past episodes, namely the one where Marge and Homer tell the children how they met, portray Marge as an intellectual, linguistically gifted student with great career prospects. At least that was the case until she met Homer. However, it cannot be said that Marge has not used her linguistic skills to her advantage. In one episode, â€Å"Marge vs. the Monorail†, Marge single-handedly battles to stop the building of an unsafe, fraudulent rail line around Springfield. In the end she wins the battle, and the citizens of Springfield are grateful to her for saving their lives. In another episode, she becomes board with her housewife role and she decides to open up a business, choosing a pretzel franchise to make her fortune. As well as this, Marge is the pillar that keeps the Simpson family standing. She is always the one who maintains the sanity and keeps the family going. She is the only voice of reason in the household, as evidenced when she goes away and the household nearly collapses. No sooner had she left for her healthfarm weekend then the family began telephoning her to ask her all manners of questions, such as Bart’s question, ‘where do you keep my socks’? Her answer, ‘In the sock draw’. Another example can be seen in her crusade to ban the violent Itchy and Scratchy cartoon. This came about after she witnessed Maggie trying to stab Homer with a knife after she saw the same thing on TV. She continued her crusade, despite the fact that she knew Bart and Lisa were getting bullied at school, and eventually she won. Marge provides the reference on which the rest of the family is based, so the audience can see just how bizarre everyone else is when in immediate juxtaposition with Marge. It would be strange to imagine what the show would be like if this were not the way of things, as much humour is born out of the family’s dependence on her.

Mexican Independence from Spain Essays

Mexican Independence from Spain Essays Mexican Independence from Spain Paper Mexican Independence from Spain Paper Mexican Independence from Spain In the late 18th century, the Spanish monarchy decided to improve the defenses of its empire because of its many military losses in Europe. Because of this, the Spanish Crown was forced to increase revenues. Between 1765 and 1771, Spain sent Jose de Galvez on an official tour of inspection of New Spain. He restructured the current taxes and their collection methods.. In 1778, Spain, attempting to increase its own revenues, lifted restrictions on colonial trade. This allowed more commerce for the colonists and allowed for more trade between the privileged of New Spain and the other Spanish colonies in America. Since the Spanish monarchy was so determined to improve defenses, it was forced to enlarge the existing colonial militias into armies. The Mexican people were disappointed with the many tax and administrative changes. The Criollos also did not like the fact that they had not been given any of the new administrative positions. Most of the Mexicans felt that they had been prospering under the old system. When the people protested and when riots broke out against the attempts at instituting reforms, they were dissipated through force. This caused Mexicans to become even more upset. They also had a new economic freedom and began to think that they could benefit more if they ran their own economic system apart from Spain. The Spanish Crown also began to limit the powers of the Catholic Church. It was viewed as a political rival because it had begun to amass large amounts of land and wealth in the colony. The Spanish government ignored the fact that the church did not actually have as much money as it seemed to. Much of its â€Å"wealth† was being loaned to colonists. In 1767, the Spanish Crown expelled the Jesuits from both new and old Spain and confiscated the wealth of the religious order. Even worse in the eyes of the Mexicans was in 1804 when the Spanish monarchy took land and wealth from the Catholic Church. These actions caused the church to reclaim all loans. This greatly affected the middle class, which was made up mostly by the colonial born whites known as the Criollos, and the mixed blooded Spanish or Indian Mestizos. The priests were also greatly affected by the Consolidation decree causing an upset of both the colonists and the priests, and convincing many to start to support Mexican Independence. The initial causes of the American Revolution were similar in that the colonists felt oppressed by their parent country of England. They felt that the monarchy they once knew as their savior could no longer provide for the best interests of the colonies and that it was taking advantage of them by imposing taxes upon them and using other means to earn revenue they it didn’t rightfully deserve. The Proclamation of 1763 restricted colonists from settling the area east of the Appalachian Mountains. This restriction angered colonists who were looking for land to call their own. This was followed by the Currency Act of 1764, then the Sugar Act of the same year, and finally, the Stamp Act of 1765. All of these acts, and subsequent ones, were used as revenue measures by England to regain the large amounts of wealth lost during the previous war. The colonists were not protesting taxes that were intended primarily to regulate state. They were protesting those designed simply to raise money. Unlike in Mexico’s case, there had been over fifty years of salutary neglect causing the new regulations to seriously alarm and upset the colonists. However, similarly, both the Mexican colonists and the American ones were upset by these unexpected economic costs that largely, and, seemingly, adversely affected them. According to Brune Leone’s The Mexican War of Independence the Criollo resentment in particular had greatly weakened the relations between New Spain and its mother country by the start of the 19th century. Another large factor in spurring the independence movement was the influence of the Enlightenment taking place in Europe. This was a large factor working for American Independence as well. Many Criollos in New Spain began to read the works of the Enlightenment writers and then began to question the benefits and reasons for their colonial relationship with Spain. The Mexican colonists were also affected by the examples of the American Revolution and the French Revolution. All of the aforementioned factors contributed to the independence movement of Mexico. However, the main steps towards independence came because of Napoleon’s invasion of Spain in 1808. The monarchy was greatly weakened when Napoleon gave the crown to his brother causing the people of Madrid to revolt. With Spain’s back turned, the leaders of New Spain began to argue amongst themselves. The viceroy was forced to allow the Criollos to participate in administration. Then, a group of Peninsulares, those who had been placed in many of the administrative positions, did not like that the Criollos were gaining any influence in the government. They staged a coup d’etat and overthrew the viceregal government. Shortly before dawn on September 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla made a monumentous decision that revolutionized the course of Mexican history. Within hours, Hidalgo, a Catholic priest in the village of Dolores, ordered the arrest of Dolores native Spaniards. Then Hidalgo rang the church bell as he customarily did to call the indians to mass. The message that Hidalgo gave to the indians and mestizos called them to retaliate against the hated Gachupines, or native Spaniards, who had exploited and oppressed Mexicans for ten generations. Although a movement toward Mexican independence had already been in progress since Napoleons conquest of Spain, Hidalgos passionate declaration was a swift, unpremeditated decision on his part. Mexicanos, Viva Mexico! (Mexicans, long live Mexico! ) Hidalgo told the Mexicans who were the members of New Spains lowest caste. He urged the exploited and embittered Mexicans to recover the lands that were stolen from their forefathers. That he was calling these people to revolution was a radical change from the original revolution plot devised by the Criollos, or Mexican-born Spaniards. On September 1 6, 1810, Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a priest who had become familiar with the ideas of the Enlightenment, began a revolt in hopes of freeing Mexico from the Spanish colonial government and its Peninsulares. Hidalgo wanted an immediate abolition of slavery and the end of taxes on Native Americans. Tens of thousands of Native Americans near Mexico City joined thousands of Mestizos in their uprising because they had been suffering from rising food prices and their constantly declining wages. Gathering adherents like a snowball rolling downhill, this mob-army numbered several hundred when it captured San Miguel (today San Miguel de Allende), 6,000 when it entered Celaya, 20,000 when it rolled into Guanajuato, 50,000 when it overran Valladolid and 82,000 as it engulfed Toluca and menaced Mexico City. Few Criollos joined this rebellion because of the violence and destruction. Many sided with the offering of stability from the Peninsulares instead. Groups of Criollos across Mexico had been plotting to overthrow the authority of Gachupines who, because of their Spanish birth, had legal and social priority over the Mexican born Criollos. When Joseph Bonaparte replaced King Ferdinand as the leader of Spain, the Criollos recognized a prime opportunity for Mexican sovereignity. The nucleus of this movement was a group of intellectuals in Queretaro led by the Corregidor of Queretaro (state official), his wife and a group of army officers distinguished by the adventurous Ignacio Allende. The Criollos plan for revolution did not originally focus on the manpower of the Mexicans. Instead, the Criollos sought to avoid military confrontation by convincing Criollo army officers to sever their allegiance to the Gachupines. By claiming loyalty to the defeated King Ferdinand, the Criollos aimed to establish Mexico as an independent nation within King Ferdinands Spanish empire. The Gachupines who claimed authority under Bonapartes rule would be driven out of Mexico. Hidalgo had close ties with this group. Approaching sixty years of age, Hidalgo was beloved and greatly respected by Mexicans. Once the dean of the College of San Nicolas at Valladolid in Michoacan (now Morelia), Hidalgo was a well-educated, courageous humanitarian. He was sympathetic to the Indians, which was unusual amongst Mexican clergymen. Against Gachupin law, Hidalgo taught Indians to plant olives, mulberries and grapevines and to manufacture pottery and leather. His actions irritated the Spanish viceroy who, as a punitive measure, cut down Hidalgos trees and vines. Rebel forces fought royalist forces near Mexico City. Many inexperienced soldiers deserted the force, however, which had suffered large losses even though the royalists did retreat. By January of 1811, the remainder of Hidalgo’s army was defeated near Guadalajara. Hidalgo himself was caught when he fled to the north in March of that year. He was executed on July 30, 1811. Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon was the next priest to lead in the way of independence. He also called for racial and social equality. He was a better military commander than Hidalgo and under him large amounts of territory was captured. He declared Mexican an independent nation in 1813. However, royalist forces still controlled Mexico city. Morelo’s continued to fight until 1815 when Morelos was captured and executed. The Spanish revolution of 1820 changed the rebellion in Mexico. It restored the more liberal constitution of 1812 and emphasized representative government and individual liberty. The Mexican leaders were dismayed by these liberal political tendencies in Spain, but their biggest concern was the instability of Spain. Iturbide met Guerrero in 1821 and they signed an agreement to combine their forces to bring about Mexico’s independence. Their plan was called the Plan of Iguala. It guaranteed that Mexico would become an independent country and be ruled as a limited monarchy, that the Roman Catholic Church would be the state church, and that the Criollos would have the same rights as the Peninsulares. The viceroy did not oppose Iturbide and was thus forced to resign. The last viceroy of New Spain arrived in Mexico in July of 1821 and was made to accept the Treaty of Cordoba. This marked the formal beginning of Mexican independence. Iturbide became emperor of Mexico. He held that position until 1823 when he was overthrown by military revolt. A republic was then proclaimed and Guadalupe Victoria became the first president. Mexico was not prepared for creating a new republic. Social stability and the economy had been destroyed because of civil war. There was no one who had the political experience to unite the nation together. Deciding the actual role of the federal government needed time and debate. In 1824, the first constitution was ratified. It allowed state legislators the power to elect both the president and the vice president. This resulted in a series of weak presidents that were forced to attempt to create as effective government as possible. The American and Mexican revolutions were very similar in their initial reasons for beginning their struggle for independence. The actual revolutions were also less than fifty years apart. Both the American and Mexican revolutionaries lacked the great deal of military force that their mother countries had. Their combatants were supposedly far superior military wise, but they were defeated in both conquests for independence. When Mexico first gained its independence, however, it began as a monarchy. America had more of sound beginning on paper, but also had many problems in establishing a government best suited for the people, that would be accepted by them. Both America and Mexico suffered economically right after their true declarations of independence. Besides the military aspects, the American and Mexican independence were incredibly similar in the reasons for seeking independence and the first outcomes after independence. Bibliography: Galicia, Angie. â€Å"Don Miguel Hidalgo, Father of Mexico’s Independence† inside-mexico. com/laentrevista2. htm Paz, Octavio, â€Å"Exit from the Labyrinth, The Hidalgo Revolt† Sisk, Cynthia. â€Å"Hidalgo y Castilla, Miguel. Historic Text Archive† http://historicaltextarchive. com/sections. php? op=viewarticleartid=551 Stein, Conrad R. â€Å"The Mexican War of Independence (The Story of Mexico). † Oct 31, 2007 Wilmington, DE: SR â€Å"The Wars of Independence in Spanish America. † Books, 2000. Works cited: Galicia, Angie. â€Å"Don Miguel Hidalgo, Father of Mexico’s Independence† inside-mexico. com/laentrevista2. htm Stein, Conrad R. â€Å"The Mexican War of Independence (The Story of Mexico). † Oct 31, 2007 Wilmington, DE: SR â€Å"The Wars of Independence in Spanish America. † Books, 2000.

Everyday Use essays

Everyday Use essays Existentialism is about having the freedom to determine what is right for you in your lifestyle. Todays society seemed to have forgotten that the right to choose is a privilege. Past leaders such as Dr. Martin Luther King Dr. Martin Luther Kings sermon Give us the Ballot relates to race in the 21st century because minorities are still being treated unfairly in the job market. Minorities hold less than half of all top positions in businesses today. It has been proven in many studies that white males manage most all of corporate America. This is why America had to put things such as affirmative action in place, which requires companies to hire a certain amount of minorities each year by law. This is why when you fill out a job application today they ask for your ethnicity. There are open-minded white and black people that know this type of treatment is going on in their place of business, but they fail to say anything because they fear that they may lose their job. I feel that Dr. King would be embarrassed to stand next to most of our leaders today. I feel this way because Dr. King preached about the community needing strong, reliable, and honest leaders; today we find that most of our leaders are very far from these values. For example, people in government lie all of the time during elections. Basically they tell you what you want to hear so that they can get your vote, and once they get in office the do the total opposite of what they promise they would. Also for example, former President Bill Clinton, he got on national television and stated that he did not have sex with Monica Lewinski. About a week later she had her suit DNA tested to prove that his semen was on it and all of a sudden he rememb ...

Ocean Sunfish Facts

Ocean Sunfish Facts The ocean sunfish (Mola mola) is certainly one of the more unusual-appearing fish in the oceans. This bony fish, also known as the common mola, is famous for its enormous bulk, striking appearance, high fertility, and free moving lifestyle. Fast Facts: Ocean Sunfish Scientific Name: Mola molaCommon Name(s): Ocean sunfish, common mola, common sunfishBasic Animal Group: FishSize: 6–10 feetWeight: 2,000 poundsLifespan: 22–23 yearsDiet:  CarnivoreHabitat: Pacific, Indian, Atlantic oceans, Mediterranean and North SeasPopulation: UnknownConservation Status: Vulnerable Description The ocean sunfish is a bony fish- it has a skeleton of bone, which distinguishes it from cartilaginous fish, whose skeletons are made of cartilage. The fish doesnt have a normal-looking tail; instead, it has a lumpy appendage called a clavus, which evolved through the fusion of the fishs dorsal and anal fin rays. Despite its lack of a powerful tail, the ocean sunfish is an active and graceful swimmer, using its dorsal and anal fins to perform rapid changes in direction and horizontal movements independent of the prevailing current. It can also leap out of the water. Ocean sunfish vary in color from brown to gray to white. Some even have spots. On average, ocean sunfish weighs about 2,000 pounds and range between 6 and 10 feet across, making them the largest  bony fish  species. Female sunfish are larger than the males- all sunfish larger than 8 feet long are females. The largest ocean sunfish ever measured was nearly 11 feet across  and weighed over 5,000 pounds.   Rodrigo Friscione/Getty Images Species The word mola in its scientific name is Latin for millstone- a large  round stone used to grind grain- and the fishs name is a reference to its disc-like shape. Ocean sunfish are often referred to as common molas or simply molas. The ocean sunfish is also known as the common sunfish, as there are three other species of sunfish that live in the ocean- the slender mola (Ranzania laevis), the sharp-tailed mola (Masturus lanceolatus), and the southern ocean sunfish (Mola alexandrini). The sunfish group gets its name for the fishs characteristic behavior of lying on its side at the sea surface, seemingly basking in the sun. Habitat and Range Ocean sunfish live in tropical and temperate waters, and they can be found in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans as well as inlets such as the Mediterranean and North seas. They generally stay within 60–125 miles of the coastline, and they apparently migrate within their ranges. They spend the summers at higher latitudes and their winters relatively closer to the equator; their ranges typically are along about 300 miles of coastline, although one sunfish off the coast of California was mapped at traveling over 400 miles. They move during the day horizontally at rate of about 16 miles a day. They also move vertically through the day, traveling between the surface and up to 2,600 feet below, moving up and down the water column during the day and night to chase food and regulate body heat. To see an ocean sunfish, though, youll likely have to find one in the wild, because they are difficult to keep in captivity. The Monterey Bay Aquarium is the only aquarium in the U.S. to have live ocean sunfish, and the fish  are kept at only a few other aquaria, such as the Lisbon Oceanarium in Portugal and the Kaiyukan Aquarium in Japan. Diet and Behavior Ocean sunfish like to eat jellyfish and siphonophores (relatives of jellyfish); in fact, they are among the most abundant of the worlds jellyfish eaters. They also eat salps, small fish, plankton, algae, mollusks, and  brittle stars. If youre lucky enough to see an ocean sunfish in the wild, it may look like its dead. Thats because ocean sunfish are often seen lying on their sides near the ocean surface, sometimes flapping their dorsal fins. There are a few theories about why sunfish do this; they often undertake long, deep dives in cold water in search of their favorite prey,  and may use the warm sun at the surface to re-heat themselves and aid digestion. The fish may also use the warm, oxygen-rich surface water to recharge their oxygen stores. And they may visit the surface to attract seabirds from above or cleaner fish from below to clean their skin of parasites. Some sources suggest that the fish wave their fins to attract birds. From 2005 to 2008, scientists tagged 31 ocean sunfish in the North Atlantic in the first study of its kind. The tagged sunfish spent more time near the ocean surface during the night than during the day, and they spent more time in the deep when they were in warmer waters such as  the  Gulf Stream  and the  Gulf of Mexico. BarrettMacKay BarrettMacKay/Getty Images   Reproduction and Offspring Ocean sunfish in Japanese waters spawn in late summer through October and likely multiple times. Age at sexual maturity is inferred at 5–7 years of age, and they spawn an enormous number of eggs. An ocean sunfish was once found with an estimated 300 million eggs in her ovary- more than scientists have ever found in any  vertebrate  species. Although sunfish produce many eggs, the eggs are tiny and essentially scattered into the water, making their chances of survival relatively small. Once an egg is fertilized, the embryo grows into tiny spiked larvae with a tail. After hatching, the spikes and tail disappear and the baby sunfish resembles a small adult. The lifespan of an ocean sunfish is up to 23 years. Conservation Status The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed the ocean sunfish as Vulnerable. Currently, sunfish are not targeted for human consumption, but they are endangered by bycatch. Reported estimates in California are that 14 percent to 61 percent of the fish caught by people seeking swordfish is sunfish; in South Africa, they make up 29 to 79 percent of the catch intended for horse mackerel, and in the Mediterranean, an astounding 70 to 95 percent of the total catch for swordfish is, in fact, ocean sunfish. The global population of sunfish is difficult to determine, since they spend so much time in deep water, although tagging has become more common. Sunfish may be a crucial part of the planets changing ecosystem under climate change: They are among the worlds most abundant eaters of jellyfish, and global warming appears to be resulting in an upsurge of jellyfish numbers. The biggest natural predators of ocean sunfish are  orcas  and  sea lions. Ocean Sunfish and Humans Despite their enormous size, ocean sunfish are harmless to humans. They move slowly and are likely more frightened of us than we are of them. Because they are not considered a good food fish in most places, their biggest threats are likely being hit by boats and being caught as bycatch in fishing gear.   Franco Banfi/Getty Images Sources Dewar, H., et al. Satellite Tracking the Worlds Largest Jelly Predator, the Ocean Sunfish, Mola Mola, in the Western Pacific. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 393.1 (2010): 32–42. Print.Liu, J., et al. Mola mola (errata version published in 2016). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: e.T190422A97667070, 2015.  Potter, Inga F., and W. Huntting Howell. Vertical Movement and Behavior of the Ocean Sunfish, Mola Mola, in the Northwest Atlantic. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 396.2 (2011): 138–46. Print.Sims, David W., et al. Satellite Tracking of the Worlds Largest Bony Fish, the Ocean Sunfish (Mola Mola L.) in the North East Atlantic. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 370.1 (2009): 127–33. Print.Thys, Tierney M., et al. Ecology of the Ocean Sunfish, Mola Mola, in the Southern California Current System. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 471 (2015): 64–76. Print.

Innovation and Entrepreneurship Case Analysis on Aravind Eye Care Essay

Innovation and Entrepreneurship Case Analysis on Aravind Eye Care System model - Essay Example This business model mainly targets Tier 4 consumers as exhibited by The World Economic Pyramid shown in Appendix 1. According to Prahalad & Hart (2002), Tier 4 consumers are mainly comprised by two thirds of the world’s population and these people are very poor since they survive on less than $1 per capita per day. In this case, it can be observed that Aravind Eye Care System is more concerned with the welfare of the people as a result of their level of income. However, the main challenge of this business model is that doing business in the world’s poor requires radical innovations in technology and business models. For instance, Prahalad & Hart (2002) posits to the effect that Tier 4 communities are often physically and economically isolated which entails that distribution and communication systems are essential for the development of the bottom of the pyramid model. Entrepreneurs targeting the consumers belonging to this category should make sure that their business m odels reflect the needs and interests of the targeted people. Business models that do not reflect the needs and interests of the targeted people are likely to face challenges since there may be a tendency by people to shun the services offered. A business model that is customer oriented is likely to appeal to the interests of many people. 2. The Aravind Eye Care System is driven by demand pull which is an opportunity for venturing into business. Basically, entrepreneurship is mainly concerned with recognizing as well as satisfying the opportunity while at the same time building something of recognised value. This entails that innovation is something the entrepreneur is continually doing (Burke, 2006). Dr V as he is affectionately known recognises the demand for eye care and is motivated to pursue a dream of venturing into business meant to eradicate all needless blindness in India among the poor. His business model is built on the nature of the demand that exists in poor communities in India. According to Lamb et al (2008), entrepreneurs are supposed to add value when they recognize a demand for a particular service. In order to design the business model to fulfil this demand, creativity is required in order to effectively satisfy the needs of the people targeted. The 4 P's of innovation namely: paradigm, position, product, process are often taken into consideration when designing a system that is meant to fulfil the demand that has arisen in the market. Nieuwenhuizen (2004) suggests that successful entrepreneur should idealise the main opportunity behind the business venture. This allows him to come up with an effective position of the product or service to be offered. This entails that the product should be carefully defined such that its design can appeal to the interests of the targeted people. The process of designing the product or service is ongoing and is characterised by pro activity, achievement orientation as well as locus control and human relation s (Nieuwenhuizen, 2004). The information management model might be useful in supporting decision making in this case. The model of information management can significantly contribute to improved decision making in business given that the success of any business can be attributed to the quality of information used when making important decisions. There is no business that can properly function without correct information (Kritzinger, Bowler & Goliath, 2003). Through information manag

Introduction & Conclusion for implementation of quality application Essay

Introduction & Conclusion for implementation of quality application - Essay Example Many companies have started to shift to service industry in order to earn revenue but many of them face problem to maintain quality in service. Maintaining quality is also an important issue for product marketer because improving quality in production decreases overall cost for product marketer. Valls and Vergueiro (2006) argued that deploying quality applications such as Total Quality Management (TQM), Six Sigma and Quality Circle etc can decrease error margin in production for manufacturing companies. In such context, Wisniewski (2001) pointed out that there cannot be one definition of quality which can serve the purpose of all the industry. For example, quality concept for manufacturing company is defined by its production efficiency, decrease in error margin in production, decrease in production frequency of faulty products etc while quality concept for hospitality sector is defined by its ability to provide faultless responsive service to customers. Finnish marketing legend Gron roos defined the quality concept in the following manner; The consumer compares his expectations with the service he perceives he has received, i.e. he puts the perceived service against the expected service. The result of this process will be the perceived quality of service. - (Gronroos, 1984, p. 37) Valls and Vergueiro (2006) pointed out that quality applications can cover number of interrelated aspects in the organization such as leadership, customer focus, environmental sustainability, management system, knowledge management, environmental sustainability, process approach and supplier relationship. International quality management body ISO has defined 8 quality criteria and meeting these criteria can help organizations to achieve quality excellence award. These quality criteria or applications can be defined as, 1- Customer focus- Proving service to customers which can meet or exceed the expectation of customers, 2- Leadership- achieving leadership position when it comes to qua lity management and guiding employees to maintain the leadership position, 3- People- proper utilization of human resources to ensure quality in the process, 4- Process- improving process flow to in order to enhance quality of the output, 5- System Approach- controlling interrelated process in order to improve quality of output, 6- Continual Improvement- sharing and managing knowledge within the organization in order to ensure sustainable growth, 7- Factual Decision- taking decision on the basis of facts and data driven manner and 8- Mutually Beneficial Relationship- providing mutual benefits to suppliers and other stakeholders (ISO, 2012). The researcher has already undergone the three case studies such as, 1- implementation of TQM in Florida International University- in this case study, the university has planned to implement TQM in order to improve quality of education and normal learning environment, 2- implementation of European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) in Royal College Surgeons in Ireland- the institute has already became member of EFQM in 2010 and the institute has implemented the

AEGON Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

AEGON - Research Paper Example Apart from the qualitative methods of data collection named above, other quantities methods of data collection such as experiments and conducting surveys got used. Among the findings was that the organization has sought to improve personal and community development in different aspects as well as growing and developing worldwide. Some organizations, including learning and non-learning institutions, profitable and nonprofitable firm, have sought the need to expand globally in their fields of service provision. Other groups have realized the importance of developing in their service provision as well as introducing new ventures that can drive them in the realization of their set goals and objectives. Some have employed business experts to carry out researches on various available business opportunities around the world that they can venture in, with the primary goal of profit realization. In the process of exploring the different available business opportunities, some firms have sought to generate incomes and later use them for community development, personal development as well as the improving the general welfare of the society. To realize these, some organizations and other institutions have employed some strategies such as blueprint strategy, online marketing, product differentiation and improving product qualities among others. In this research paper, I am going to look at the AEGON organization, as a global firm that is seeking to realize its goals of global expansion and international business. I am going to see the growth of the organization, its international business, as well as the marketing strategies used by the institution in meeting the needs in various international markets. This organization is one of the top global organizations in the financial industry, offering financial services such as the provision of life assurance, pensions to the retired employees and management of various assets. The group got

Neo-Malthusian Population Control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Neo-Malthusian Population Control - Essay Example Celibacy, or sexual abstinence, struck Malthus as potentially an effective solution for solving the problem he himself diagnosed with human societies (Gilbert). As we should in contemporary liberal societies, most will find Malthus' conclusions unsettling, not only because of what they describe as in our future, but because of what his findings might justify in terms of government control. The kinds of methods that Neo-Malthusians suggest are necessary to protect the Malthusian catastrophe are undesirable at best and totalitarian at worst. Given this background, there are numerous theorists, from many different fields, who oppose the arguments of Neo-Malthusians by criticizing Thomas Malthus himself. One criticism is apparent in economist David D. Friedman, who concludes that the prospect of parents having "too many" children is unlikely. His first argument is that although parents may not always be the most rational in deciding to have a child, it is even more difficult for a government, which is the only alternative from having parents decide. Parents are, despite common concerns, rational decision-makers. As the Malthusian catastrophe nears, reasons Friedman, economic effects are felt on fertility. Friedman says, "Consider also the effect of economic conditions on fertility. At the bottom of a depression, with short term income low and long-term prospects-for both parents and children-bleak, birth rates should fall. They do" (Freidman). Julian

Death Penalty Position Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Death Penalty Position Paper - Essay Example Proponents believe it to be neither cruel nor unusual, on the contrary, they think it just and fair. The purpose of this study is to discuss the legal and moral issues that literally are of life and death importance and is a major barometer when measuring a societies collective conscience. The ‘eye for an eye’ group not only accepts but vocally insists that the death penalty be continued for many reasons which will be covered thoroughly in this discussion. It will also include the opponents’ reasoning regarding why it should be abolished along with the legal precedents involved in an effort to gain a comprehensive overview of the death penalty debate. The discussion will conclude with an opinion regarding the future of Capital punishment in the U.S. By definition, capital punishment is not unusual, legally speaking, unless one considers and acknowledges the racial bias that exists in the justice system. Whether or not it is cruel is not definable by law. It can only be defined by the collective social conscious of a culture. The legal interpretation of ‘cruel and unusual’ is somewhat open to debate but in general, the term ‘cruel’ refers to brutal punishments that cause excessive pain. Most legal experts agree that punishments including bodily dismemberment or torture are undoubtedly classified as cruel. Again, terminologies are open to interpretation as evidenced by the current debate at the highest level of government involving the definition of torture. The term ‘unusual’ is commonly understood to define the equitable application of punishment for a particular offense. For example, if ten people were cited for speeding and nine of them were fined $100 but one was fined $1000, this penal ty would be considered ‘unusual.’ Taken together, both ‘cruel’ and ‘unusual’ indicate that the punishment should be exacted in proportion to the offense committed. A life term in prison is an

Neo-Malthusian Population Control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Neo-Malthusian Population Control - Essay Example Celibacy, or sexual abstinence, struck Malthus as potentially an effective solution for solving the problem he himself diagnosed with human societies (Gilbert). As we should in contemporary liberal societies, most will find Malthus' conclusions unsettling, not only because of what they describe as in our future, but because of what his findings might justify in terms of government control. The kinds of methods that Neo-Malthusians suggest are necessary to protect the Malthusian catastrophe are undesirable at best and totalitarian at worst. Given this background, there are numerous theorists, from many different fields, who oppose the arguments of Neo-Malthusians by criticizing Thomas Malthus himself. One criticism is apparent in economist David D. Friedman, who concludes that the prospect of parents having "too many" children is unlikely. His first argument is that although parents may not always be the most rational in deciding to have a child, it is even more difficult for a government, which is the only alternative from having parents decide. Parents are, despite common concerns, rational decision-makers. As the Malthusian catastrophe nears, reasons Friedman, economic effects are felt on fertility. Friedman says, "Consider also the effect of economic conditions on fertility. At the bottom of a depression, with short term income low and long-term prospects-for both parents and children-bleak, birth rates should fall. They do" (Freidman). Julian

Global companies operating in Qatar Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Global companies operating in Qatar - Coursework Example Hence, multinational firms are eager to operate in the market. But due to political uncertainties, they fear for losses (Desai, 2009) and have adopted business strategies such as purchasing of licenses or franchising. Hence, the global firm’s leases out their trading licenses at the company inception. However, during that period, they monitor the business situation and understand the market more as they prepare for a takeover. Qatar comprises of many culture that majorly originate from the Middle East. Hence, the global firms that wish to operate in the market are more suitable to apply the franchising way rather than the trade licenses. The essential component of any business is to influence customers. Hence, by use of franchising, they use the local persons who understand the environment better (Schwab & Martin, 2011). Hence, they can implement strategies that influence persons making the business to grow faster. The global firms like MacDonald’s are majorly operating in food staffs. Hence, they need to study the locals’ culture first and see where to improve. Thus, the firms do itself in Dubai due to franchising since this has been the only way to enter the market and

Chocolate History Essay Example for Free

Chocolate History Essay All chocolate starts with a seed called a cocoa bean that is grown on a small tree. Many countries in Central and South America produce cocoa beans. The history of chocolate starts in Latin America, where the cocoa bean was first discovered about 2,000 years ago on a tropical tree. The first people recognized to have used these beans to make any kind of chocolate were the Maya’s. They called it the kakawa bean, which is where the origin of the world chocolate began. They most often used the bean to make a spicy, foamy drink. Later, the Aztecs discovered the cocoa bean. Eventually this was introduced in Europe after the Spaniards came to Central America. When the Spaniards began experimenting with the bean, they began to add other spices to it, such as cinnamon and sugar, to give the chocolate a sweeter taste. Soon, the rest of Europe started drinking it and it became a popular drink that only the rich could afford. In the 1600’s the first chocolate house was opened and this flavor was able to reach the mouths of many other people. In the early 1800’s, solid chocolate was created. It became more affordable to everyone and throughout time more recipes were experimented with, creating many different types of chocolate. There are many different types of chocolate such as White, Dark (bittersweet), Milk, Semi-Sweet and even Baking Chocolate (unsweetened). White chocolate isnt really considered chocolate because it has no cocoa solids in it, it is made of the fat from the cocoa beans known as cocoa butter. White chocolate has a creamy consistency and taste. It lacks flavor because it contains no chocolate liquor which gives chocolate the bitter strong chocolate flavor. White chocolate is not normally used in cooking unless it is a replacement for dark or milk chocolate. It is used mainly for decorating. Dark chocolate is the healthiest type of chocolate. This chocolate contains a large amount of disease-fighting flavonoids, anti-oxidants also found in red wine and lots of different fruit and vegetables. Its anti-oxidants can significantly improve blood pressure, prevent blood clots, slow the oxidation of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) cholesterol making it less likely to stick to artery walls and also reduce inflammation. Eating dark chocolate can also lower insulin resistance, the main problem behind diabetes. Milk chocolate does not contain as much chocolate liquor as dark chocolate, which gives it a softer chocolate flavor. This chocolate is much sweeter than any other. It is the most popular type of chocolate. Milk chocolate is more difficult to temper properly and more prone to overheating which would make it thick and lumpy if it comes into contact with water. Milk chocolate can be used in pretty much anything you want to be sweet. The difference between regular chocolate and baking chocolate is baking chocolate has less sugar and no fat and its bitter while regular chocolate is sweet and sugary. Tempering means improving the consistency, durability or hardness of a substance by heating and cooling it. Tempering is done by melting solid chocolate to a temperature high enough that the crystals in the cocoa butter break down. Once the chocolate is fully melted, it must be cooled to about 82F, a temperature at which crystals will start to form again so that the chocolate can eventually re-solidify. The chocolate’s temperature is then raised back to about 90F, where it is very smooth and can be poured into chocolate molds and used for other things. White, milk and dark chocolate can be tempered. Tempered chocolate is very glossy, has a firm finish and melts smoothly at around body temperature. Chocolate that has not been tempered or that has been improperly tempered will look flat or discolored. Tempering can be done in 2 ways by hand, or through a process called seeding. Tempering by hand can be done by tabliering where melted chocolate is poured onto a cool marble surface and worked with spatulas until it has cooled down sufficiently. More melted chocolate is added back and incorporated in to the tabliered chocolate to bring it back to the final working temperature. Through the process of seeding, chocolate is melted and a small amount of finely chopped solid chocolate is added into the melted chocolate and stirred in. Adding solid chocolate will lower the temperature of the melted chocolate and it will start to temper the melted chocolate. When it comes to baking, chocolate does not need to be tempered because it is being incorporated into another form. Tempering chocolate is good for dipping foods, for a more clean finish.

The Importance Of Play Children And Young People Essay

The Importance Of Play Children And Young People Essay The central interest of this essay is to evaluate the role of play in relation to language and communication development. Developmental psychology is the main source to explore and explain this unique interrelation, because it offers vital information about the human behavior. For this reason several developmental theories occur from many scientists such as Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Sigmunt Freud, Albert Bandura and other contemporary scientists, who managed to clarify the aspects of child development from different perspectives. Initially, this essay illustrates the importance of play by describing its categories. Play theories are briefly demonstrated and divided into classical and contemporary. Thereafter, it mentions the characteristics of language through the aspects of two respectful scientists, Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget, in order to understand the correlation between language and play development. It illustrates the existence of nine basic communicational skills and why non-verbal and verbal communication is so important. Also, this essay analyzes research which explains the direct relation between play, language and communication. Through detailed references, the idea that the role of play is salient in childs development is supported. Next illustrates the importance of finger, mime and rhyme play to explain that even the most common games possess a significant role in language development. Last but not least, analyzes how play reinforces the literacy development and finally demonstrates the opinio n of the writer. The Importance of Play Arguably, play is a vital part of the development of children which has many implications in their lives. Despite the difficulty of referring a commonly accepted definition, play is a vital part of the developing child (Sheridan Howard Aldelson, 2011). It is a fundamental action which occurs throughout childrens life and is divided to two categories, free play and structured play. Precisely, free play is an action where the child can choose the rules and the form of play, without the participation and the engagement of an adult. Hence, the child becomes the leader of the play (Tassoni Hucker, 2000). On the other hand, structured play is defined as an action which is directed by adults. Many researchers have claimed that free play offers more opportunities to children for learning than the second category does. At the same time, there are proponents of this view and others who do not adopt this notion. For this reason, Thomas, Howard and Miles proved by a study they conducted, that free play, in other words playful mode play, is capable of fostering childrens ability of learning. They state that through this mode childrens communication is benefited, because that playfulness creates the ability of enhancing miscellaneous types of behaviors. As a result, educational settings use this method to foster childrens language and communication development (McInnes, Howard, Miles Crowley, 2009). It is of importance to mention that there are play theories which are separated into two categories, classical and modern theories of play. Concisely, classical theories consist of the Surplus Energy Theory, Recreational or Relaxation Theory, Pre-exercise Theory and the Recapitulation Theory of play (Sheridan Howard Aldelson, 2011 Stagnitti, 2004 Tassoni Hucker, 2000). Modern theories concluded by the Arousal Modulation Theories of Play, the Psychodynamic Theories of Play, the Cognitive Developmental Theories of Play and the Sociocultural theories of Play. The last category is divided into two sub-categories which are the Play as Socialization and the Metacommunicative Theory (Stagnitti, 2004). Moreover, there are five types of play, which are cited as physical play, play with objects, symbolic play, socio-dramatic/pretence play and games with rules (Whitebread, 2012). The above five types of play help children to expand their abilities not only in language and communication domain, but also in the physical, cognitive, social and emotional development (Sheridan Howard Aldelson, 2011). According to the constant evolution of language and communication, play and its benefits in this domain must be analyzed in depth, in order to evaluate childrens developmental potentials through play. Language and Communication Language is a strong communication tool (Moyles, 1989) which fosters childrens abilities. Through language we can live the past again, evaluate the future and use this vital tool when we face complex situations (Crain, 2000). Also, many developmental theorists tried to explain, how children adopt primal abilities as they grow up and some of them, gave special emphasize to the language and communication development and how is related to play. They evaluate childrens development from birth to adulthood. Vygotsky, claimed by his social constructivism theory, that language is the cultural tool which facilitates the processes of thinking and learning. It was his firm belief that children must comprehend language, in order to interact in the society. Hence, according to Vygotsky, play and language are interrelated (Moyles, 2005). Due to the fact that through play children master communication skills, they interpret the use of objects and imitate the attitudes and the habits of adults (Gray MacBlain, 2012). In addition, he stated that children gain knowledge when they participate in social communication and consequently, they adopt new meanings. Therefore, according to Vygotsky, children act in the zone of proximal development (Whitebread, 1996), which means that every child has limited potential when accomplishing an activity but he can expand his skills with a suitable help (Lindon, 2001). However, another respectful scientist did not lay emphasis, as Vygotsky did, on the importance of language during childrens development. Piaget, a Swiss scientist, stated that language mechanism is used by the young child only to express some basic satisfactions and not to foster more complex functions such as thought and logic (Gray MacBlain, 2012). Furthermore, Piagets opinions did not promote childrens abilities; instead he undervalued them, by applying activities that were too complex for children competences (Whitebread, 1996). On the contrary, some scientists argue that childrens thought, started to function logically as they learn how to use language. This happens because language skills are difficult to be assimilated by young children, but when this gradually occurs, logic develops (Crain, 2000). Nevertheless, Piaget did not support the above notion by mentioning that logic derives from actions (Gray MacBlain, 2012). On the grounds that language is an integral part of communication, it is important to pinpoint some of the skills that children develop in this domain. In other words there are nine basic communication skills. Initially, children learn to request reinforcement, to request assistance, to accept and reject offers. Furthermore, they respond to the order wait or no, they respond to directions, follow a schedule and finally they are able to do a transition from one place to another (Frost Bondy, 2011). For instance, when children pretend to be a patient in a hospital, they learn when they have to wait their turn in order to be examined by the doctor and they give order such as wait, stay, come. Communication is a complex function. Before the emergence of words, children can communicate in a high level before adopting language production and language comprehension (Sheridan Sharma Cockerill, 2008). The above aspect describes the non-verbal communication type which is very important. Newborn babies communicate non-verbally to express their needs. Facial expressions, body language, proto-sounds and perception of feelings are the attributes of non-verbal communication (Whitehead, 1999). Hence, adults start to communicate with children initially non-verbally and secondly verbally. Research argues that conversation between children and adults which contains a large number of open questions is essential because children have the opportunity to respond with spoken language. In other words, when children feel that they are active participants in an adult-child conversation, they feel playful which is salient for the development of language. (Howard McInnes, 2012). Fostering Language and Communication Skills through Play To begin with, studies have proved that there is a strong connection between language and play. A research which had taken place in Japan in 1989, showed remarkable signs that play and language are correlated with each other. Specifically, the four children who participated in this research, were observed twenty times each in a free play mode, where the individual had a passive role. The intention of the study was to analyze early language development and play development (Ogura, 1991). Thus, six features of language were illustrated in order to analyze the findings better. These were the emergence of first words, naming words, vocabulary spurts, word-chains, nonproductive two word utterances and the emergence of productive two-word utterances (Ogura, 1991 p.278). Furthermore, that research divided play to thirteen subcategories. The findings showed that children managed to obtain the ability of naming words because they had been involved in preverbal communication. Also, children be gan to name objects when conventional naming act category of play appeared. Furthermore, words and sounds have a strong relationship each other. It was proved that children through the functional relational manipulation play and the container relational manipulation play, managed to adopt the above important function and the production of first words as well. Moreover, it was stated that the early language development is related to the subsitutional play. Also, this study illustrated that the environment is a major factor in the development of the symbolic play. As a result, language is being influenced by the social interaction. Moreover, childrens vocabulary spurts appeared with the subsitutional play. Word-chains appeared when pretend doll play, subsitutional play and pretend other play took place during the observations. In addition, the fifth language category derived in parallel with planned play and combinatorial symbolic play. The last language category was related to planne d play (Ogura, 1991). Undoubtedly, this paper shows the unique interrelation between language development and play. Researchers evaluated the connection between symbolic play with play materials and symbolic play with play situation. Firstly, during childrens play with unstructured play materials, they found that children who are at the age of three to four years old could imitate the activities of adults. However, in structured play children were able not only to imitate but also to participate slightly in role play. At the age of four to five years old childrens unstructured play evolved and they started to express questions and ideas with the mediate tool of spoken language. On the contrary, in structured play they used more conversation. This study showed that in the first type of play children at the age of five to six used their body language and voice to clarify a situation. Also, both in structured and unstructured play, children preferred to play in sex groups. We can notice that structured materials are better for younger children because they do not offer limitations in their ideas whil e playing. In other words, younger children need to enhance their expressive ideas by playing with structured play materials to be adequately prepared for school (Umek Musek, 2001). At the same time, symbolic play related to play situation showed that phonetic imitation (Umek Musek, 2001 p. 61) is promoted and that at the age of four children use social speech. Moreover, they use social markers, in order to speak like adults (Ervin-Tripp, 1973). Later, at the age of five children used metacommunication in their play. Metacommunication is very important because children can discuss about play. They stop in order to negotiate the next step of the game. Indeed, it promotes dialogue among peers. It is very important because it can be used as scaffolding to childrens language development (Andersen, 2005). According to this study, metacommunication levels are higher when children are older. Moreover, the same study proposes that is better and more helpful for children to play in mixed groups rather than in groups based solely on their age. Hence, children can play in the zone of proximal development. Therefore, they foster their language and communication skills. Aga in, this study shows us that play which is depended whether from materials or situation is correlated with language development. Apart from the above studies there are play activities which enhance language and communication skills. For instance, children are benefited by mime because they develop an alternative thought. This occurs by observing a diversity of individuals demonstrating their thoughts. Consequently, they can think more complicated situations and they are able to express their ideas with an enriched vocabulary. Furthermore, finger play helps children to the counting process (Woodard Milch, 2012). Moreover, rhymes can provide many opportunities in children to enhance their language skills. According to a study, rhyme awareness helps children to recognize phonemes which are very important for reading skills. The sensitivity to rhyme enables children to group words together with the same spelling features (Bryant MacLean Bradley Crossland, 1990). Play fosters Literacy Vygotsky evaluated the role of make-believe play in children development and he argued that literacy is enhanced by play. He describes that children initially act spontaneously when they play, and the process of learning happens with their will. On the contrary, when children go to school they must change their behaviors to a planned and a structured environment. Vygotsky stated that make-believe play is the important mediate tool for children to adopt written language and to succeed in school (Roskos Christie, 2007). Furthermore, drawing is considerable as a necessary action for children. Research has shown that children can expand their graphic vocabularies and they can represent their meanings, which means that through drawing communication is enhanced (Whitebread, 2012). Besides, Vygotskys research has shown that drawings in the early childhood are connected with the ability of writing and spoken language, which means that the meaning of childrens drawings is not only the drawing as a picture but the drawing as an expressive tool of their thoughts (Roskos Christie, 2007). In conclusion, it is worth mentioning, that in childrens play the repetition and the renaming of play materials fosters the ability of the direct relation between words and the objects they portray. The above function is called metalinguistic awareness and it has been proven that it is necessary for written language (Roskos Christie, 2007 p.193). Conclusions It is clear, therefore, that the above essay illustrated the direct correlation between play, language and communication. Despite the fact that, it has been proven that play fosters the learning process, there are still opponents of this view, who state that formal learning strategies are better than playful approaches. However, this essay contradicts the notion of formal learning methods by supporting the opinion, that play does enhance language and communication by citing adequate bibliography to prove that. Children can reach high standards in the learning process of language because during play they are motivated and are not possessed with the feeling of fear (McInnes et al., 2009). To sum up, due to the fact that play has been decreased from school settings, it is salient to ensure that play must exist in the preschool and in the first school years of a child, because a child is always above his average age, above his daily behavior; in play it is as though he were a head taller than himself (Roskos Christie, 2007 p.199).

Global Strategies for the Multinational Corporation Essay -- Globaliza

Global expansion has developed a tactical imperative for nearly all large organizations and multinational corporation (MNC) managers have a great deal on their hands in developing, monitoring and changing these strategies. Becoming international is an important factor in assisting organizations in becoming globally competitive. As we know, trading and bartering have been around since primordial times and trading has become global. As described by Cateora, Gilly, and Graham (2013), â€Å"a huge portion of all consumer products – from automobiles to dinnerware – sold in the United States is foreign made† (p. 7). In addition, many U.S. corporations sell goods overseas to our foreign nations. The development of global markets was established by the needs of the consumer. If a domestic nation cannot supply what the consumer wants, this gives opportunity to the nations with the supply of the goods desired. Could our nation produce all the goods required for domestic consumer demand? Between 1970 and 2005, the value of U.S. merchandise imports has grown far more rapidly than domestic output. These imports increasingly originate in the developing world. Indeed, over the last thirty years, the share of total US imports from developing economies increased from 8% to nearly 40%. (as cited by Kemeny & Rigby, 2012, p. 1-2). Gaining a competitive advantage They are several actions to take to gain a competitive advantage. Productivity plays a major role on a nation’s ability to trade globally. The more production produced in a less amount of time from one nation versus another gives the country the comparative advantage. Competitive moves can also create a competitive advantage. An example is when Komatsu started manufacturing h... ...nce to end Samsung ‘rule’. The Economic Times. Retrieved from http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-04-30/news/38930222_1_sony-india-panasonic-india-samsung Nike unethical business practices. (2011). Retrieved from http://entrepreneurawards.org/2011/12/nike-unethical-business-practices.html Serban, E. (2012). The strategic alternatives for emerging markets entry strategies of multinational companies and their main investments in Romania. Revista de Management Comparat International, 13(2), 337-347. Tangen, K. (2011). Outbound travel of business students in China and India: Enriching the experience not only for students but also for the international communities. Journal of Management Policy and Practice, 12(2), 120-133. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/docview/876865204/fulltextPDF/141848A793F73C00C0D/7?accountid=28180 Global Strategies for the Multinational Corporation Essay -- Globaliza Global expansion has developed a tactical imperative for nearly all large organizations and multinational corporation (MNC) managers have a great deal on their hands in developing, monitoring and changing these strategies. Becoming international is an important factor in assisting organizations in becoming globally competitive. As we know, trading and bartering have been around since primordial times and trading has become global. As described by Cateora, Gilly, and Graham (2013), â€Å"a huge portion of all consumer products – from automobiles to dinnerware – sold in the United States is foreign made† (p. 7). In addition, many U.S. corporations sell goods overseas to our foreign nations. The development of global markets was established by the needs of the consumer. If a domestic nation cannot supply what the consumer wants, this gives opportunity to the nations with the supply of the goods desired. Could our nation produce all the goods required for domestic consumer demand? Between 1970 and 2005, the value of U.S. merchandise imports has grown far more rapidly than domestic output. These imports increasingly originate in the developing world. Indeed, over the last thirty years, the share of total US imports from developing economies increased from 8% to nearly 40%. (as cited by Kemeny & Rigby, 2012, p. 1-2). Gaining a competitive advantage They are several actions to take to gain a competitive advantage. Productivity plays a major role on a nation’s ability to trade globally. The more production produced in a less amount of time from one nation versus another gives the country the comparative advantage. Competitive moves can also create a competitive advantage. An example is when Komatsu started manufacturing h... ...nce to end Samsung ‘rule’. The Economic Times. Retrieved from http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-04-30/news/38930222_1_sony-india-panasonic-india-samsung Nike unethical business practices. (2011). Retrieved from http://entrepreneurawards.org/2011/12/nike-unethical-business-practices.html Serban, E. (2012). The strategic alternatives for emerging markets entry strategies of multinational companies and their main investments in Romania. Revista de Management Comparat International, 13(2), 337-347. Tangen, K. (2011). Outbound travel of business students in China and India: Enriching the experience not only for students but also for the international communities. Journal of Management Policy and Practice, 12(2), 120-133. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/docview/876865204/fulltextPDF/141848A793F73C00C0D/7?accountid=28180

History and Philosophy of Science

General Studies Unit Kaduna State University, Kaduna Kaduna State, Nigeria GST 203 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE LECTURE NOTES COURSE INTRODUCTION:This course is designed with the objectives of not only educating students on the historical developments that have taken place in the fields of science and technology and the philosophical basis on which achievements were made but to stimulate discuss and interests in the minds of students irrespective of the course they offer in the University, it is understood that cross disciplinary exposures of students in this manner will enable them appreciate the need to think alike and work together especially that they are our future leaders.The end result is lifting our country to joining the elite nations of scientific and technologically developed societies. Man, His Origin and Nature Introduction The origin of man is based on the modern theory concerning the evolution of man which proposes that humans and apes derive from an apelike ances tor that lived on earth a few million years ago. The theory states that man, through a combination of environmental and genetic factors, emerged as a species to produce the variety of ethnicities seen today, while modern apes evolved on a separate evolutionary pathway.Perhaps the most famous proponent of evolutionary theory is Charles Darwin (1809-82) who authored The Origin of Species (1859) to describe his theory of evolution. It was based largely on observations which he made during his 5-year voyage around the world aboard the HMS Beagle (1831-36). Since then, mankind's origin has generally been explained from an evolutionary perspective. Moreover, the theory of man's evolution has been and continues to be modified as new findings are discovered, revisions to the theory are adopted, and earlier concepts proven incorrect are discarded.Evolution of Man – Concepts in Evolutionary Theory` The currently-accepted theory of the evolution of man rests on three major principles. T hese principles hinge on the innate ability which all creatures have to pass on their genetic information to their offspring through the reproductive process. An alternative explanation for homology is a common designer. According to this reasoning, the similarities in anatomical features between species point to a blueprint used by a Creator/Designer. The first tenet is microevolution, the occurrence and build-up of mutations in the genetic sequence of an organism.Mutations are predominantly random and can occur naturally through errors in the reproductive process or through environmental impacts such as chemicals or radiation. The second tenet of evolution is natural selection. Natural selection is a natural mechanism by which the fittest members of a species survive to pass on their genetic information, while the weakest are eliminated (die off) because they are unable to compete in the wild. Natural selection is often termed â€Å"survival of the fittest† or â€Å"elimin ation of the weakest. The third tenet is speciation, which occurs when members of a species mutate to the point where they are no longer able to breed with other members of the same species. The new population becomes a reproductively isolated community that is unable to breed with its former community. Through speciation, the genes of the new population become isolated from the previous group. Evolution of Man – Scientific Evidence The theory of evolution of man is supported by a set of independent observations within the fields of anthropology, paleontology, and molecular biology.Collectively, they depict life branching out from a common ancestor through gradual genetic changes over millions of years, commonly known as the â€Å"tree of life. † Although accepted in mainstream science as altogether factual and experimentally proven, a closer examination of the evidences reveal some inaccuracies and reasonable alternative explanations. This causes a growing number of s cientists to dissent from the Darwinian theory of evolution for its inability to satisfactorily explain the origin of man.One of the major evidences for the evolution of man is homology, that is, the similarity of either anatomical or genetic features between species. For instance, the resemblance in the skeleton structure of apes and humans has been correlated to the homologous genetic sequences within each species as strong evidence for common ancestry. This argument contains the major assumption that similarity equals relatedness. In other words, the more alike two species appear the more closely they are related to one another. This is known to be a poor assumption.Two species can have homologous anatomy even though they are not related in any way. This is called â€Å"convergence† in evolutionary terms. It is now known that homologous features can be generated from entirely different gene segments within different unrelated species. The reality of convergence implies tha t anatomical features arise because of the need for specific functionality, which is a serious blow to the concept of homology and ancestry. Additionally, the evolution of man from ape-like ancestors is often argued on the grounds of comparative anatomy within the fossil record.Yet, the fossil record indicates more stability in the forms of species than slow or even drastic changes, which would indicate intermediate stages between modern species. The â€Å"missing links† are missing. And unfortunately, the field of paleoanthropology has been riddled with fraudulent claims of finding the missing link between humans and primates, to the extent that fragments of human skeletons have been combined with other species such as pigs and apes and passed off as legitimate. Although genetic variability is seen across all peoples, the process of natural selection leading to speciation is disputed.Research challenging the accepted paradigm continues to surface raising significant question s about the certainty of evolution as the origin of man. Evolution of Man – The Scrutiny The theory concerning the evolution of man is under increased scrutiny due to the persistence of gaps in the fossil record, the inability to demonstrate â€Å"life-or-death† determining advantageous genetic mutations, and the lack of experiments or observations to truly confirm the evidence for speciation. Overall, the evolution of man pervades as the accepted paradigm on the origin of man within the scientific community.This is not because it has been proven scientifically, but because alternative viewpoints bring with them metaphysical implications which go against the modern naturalistic paradigm. Nevertheless, a closer examination of the evidence reveals evolution to be increasingly less scientific and more reliant upon beliefs, not proof. Darwin's Theory of Evolution – The Premise Darwin's Theory of Evolution is the widely held notion that all life is related and has de scended from a common ancestor: the birds and the bananas, the fishes and the flowers — all related.Darwin's general theory presumes the development of life from non-life and stresses a purely naturalistic (undirected) â€Å"descent with modification†. That is, complex creatures evolve from more simplistic ancestors naturally over time. In a nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur within an organism's genetic code, the beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid survival — a process known as â€Å"natural selection. † These beneficial mutations are passed on to the next generation.Over time, beneficial mutations accumulate and the result is an entirely different organism (not just a variation of the original, but an entirely different creature). Darwin's Theory of Evolution – Natural Selection While Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a relatively young archetype, the evolutionary worldview itself is as old as antiquity. Ancient Greek philo sophers such as Anaximander postulated the development of life from non-life and the evolutionary descent of man from animal. Charles Darwin simply brought something new to the old philosophy — a plausible mechanism called â€Å"natural selection. Natural selection acts to preserve and accumulate minor advantageous genetic mutations. Suppose a member of a species developed a functional advantage (it grew wings and learned to fly). Its offspring would inherit that advantage and pass it on to their offspring. The inferior (disadvantaged) members of the same species would gradually die out, leaving only the superior (advantaged) members of the species. Natural selection is the preservation of a functional advantage that enables a species to compete better in the wild. Natural selection is the naturalistic equivalent to domestic breeding.Over the centuries, human breeders have produced dramatic changes in domestic animal populations by selecting individuals to breed. Breeders el iminate undesirable traits gradually over time. Similarly, natural selection eliminates inferior species gradually over time. Darwin's Theory of Evolution – Slowly But Surely†¦ Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a slow gradual process. Darwin wrote, â€Å"†¦Natural selection acts only by taking advantage of slight successive variations; she can never take a great and sudden leap, but must advance by short and sure, though slow steps. Thus, Darwin conceded that, â€Å"If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. † Such a complex organ would be known as an â€Å"irreducibly complex system†. An irreducibly complex system is one composed of multiple parts, all of which are necessary for the system to function. If even one part is missing, the entire system will fail to function. Every individual part is integral. Thus , such a system could not have evolved slowly, piece by piece.The common mousetrap is an everyday non-biological example of irreducible complexity. It is composed of five basic parts: a catch (to hold the bait), a powerful spring, a thin rod called â€Å"the hammer,† a holding bar to secure the hammer in place, and a platform to mount the trap. If any one of these parts is missing, the mechanism will not work. Each individual part is integral. The mousetrap is irreducibly complex. Darwin's Theory of Evolution – A Theory in Crisis Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a theory in crisis in light of the tremendous advances we've made in molecular biology, biochemistry and genetics over the past fifty years.We now know that there are in fact tens of thousands of irreducibly complex systems on the cellular level. Specified complexity pervades the microscopic biological world. Molecular biologist Michael Denton wrote, â€Å"Although the tiniest bacterial cells are incredibly sma ll, weighing less than 10-12 grams, each is in effect a veritable micro-miniaturized factory containing thousands of exquisitely designed pieces of intricate molecular machinery, made up altogether of one hundred thousand million atoms, far more complicated than any machinery built by man and absolutely without parallel in the non-living world. And we don't need a microscope to observe irreducible complexity. The eye, the ear and the heart are all examples of irreducible complexity, though they were not recognized as such in Darwin's day. Nevertheless, Darwin confessed, â€Å"To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection seems, absurd in the highest degree. However, despite all of its weaknesses and often unscientific character, human evolution will doubtless continue to be the most popular story in the evolutionary legend, and the cast of apes considered to be ancestral to man will continue to change, as it has in the past, but that is not important to evolutionism as long as the central â€Å"dogma† and its profound implications remains – man is a beast. Human Nature Human nature refers to the distinguishing characteristics, including ways of thinking, feeling and acting that humans tend to have naturally.The questions of what these characteristics are, what causes them and how this causation works, and how fixed human nature is, are amongst the oldest and most important questions in western philosophy. These questions have particularly important implications in ethics, politics and theology. This is partly because human nature can be regarded as both a source of norms of conduct or ways of life, as well as presenting obstacles or constraints on living a good life.The complex implications of such questions are also dealt with in art and literature, while the multiple branches of the Humanities together form an important domain of inquiry into human nature, and the question of what it means to be human. The branches of contemporary science associated with the study of human nature include anthropology, sociology, sociobiology and psychology, particularly evolutionary psychology and developmental psychology. The so-called â€Å"nature versus nurture† debate is a broadly inclusive and well-known instance of a discussion about human nature in the natural sciences.Man and His Cosmic Environment: We are connected to the cosmic nature through the proximity and the presence of our local star which we know as the sun (sol). Completely dominating the generation of life within the terrestrial environment in which we all have co-evolved; the sun has nine planets in orbit about itself, collectively known as the solar system. Our home, the Earth, is the third planet after Mercury and Venus. Beyond the Earth is Mars, then the asteroid belt, then the outer planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and lastly Pluto.The sun is a huge cosmic fire which spends its fuel of hydrogen by way of nuclear processes, to generate huge amounts of energy which is continually radiated out and away from the sun’s surface, and across the expanse of the solar system, out into the inter-stellar spaces. It is the systematic of three celestial bodies, the Sun, Earth and the Moon, which have defined and continue to define the specifications of the chariot which bears our life through the greater way of the cosmos.It is our relativity to these three bodies that has given rise to the human conception of both time and space in the cosmic environment. The terrestrial environment in which we dwell on a day to day basis is a subset of the greater cosmic environment. Earth Solar system Milky Way Galaxy Universe| Stars are found clustered together in galaxies, and galaxies in galactic clusters. There seems to be no observ able end to the cosmos. For example, it is estimated that our galaxy, the Milky Way, contains about 200 billion stars.It is further estimated that there are over 100 billion galaxies in the universe. The cosmos is thus observed to be an ocean of light, fed by the tributary streams of stars and galaxies. A vast and deep cosmic ocean of light, in which our planet, Earth is just an isolated and remote terrestrial island. Light travels at a speed of about 300,000km per second, capable of circulating about the Earth 712 times in one second. It takes about 8 minutes for light to reach us from the Sun, over four years from the nearest star and 400,000 years from the nearest galaxy.Because of this huge vastness of the cosmos, one common unit of measurement of cosmic distance is the light-year, which represents the distance which light travels in one Earth year. The nearest galaxies to the Milky Way are the large and small Magellanic Clouds which are located at some 150,000 light-years dista nce. The brightest of the closest galaxies is the Andromeda Nebula, which are 2,000,000 light-years away. The stars which we see in the night sky may be stars within the Milky Way, but they may also be remote galaxies, or even remoter galactic clusters.The Earth is estimated to be 412 billion years old while the sun is estimated to be about 5 billion years old. The supply of Sun’s fuel of Hydrogen is estimated to last another 5 billion years. Scientific Methodology: Science: (From the Latin Scientia, means â€Å"knowledge†) is a reliable body of knowledge that can be logically and rationally explained. Scientific method: refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.Philosophies fall into two primary categories namely: 1. Idealism and 2. Materialism. The basic proposition of these two categories pertains to the nature of reality, while to the idealist, spirit or mind is primary, and created matter is secondary. The materialistic philosophers believe that matter is primary and mind or spirit is secondary. The theory holds that the only thing that exists is matter and that all things are composed of material and all phenomena (including consciousness) are the result of material interaction.Scientific method agrees with the materialistic philosophy where all scientific discoveries arise from human interaction with nature. This method of discovery is characterized by a sequence of steps, although these steps or procedures may vary from one field of inquiry to another, the general identifiable features that form the major steps in scientific method include: Observation, Problem definition, Hypothesis formulation, Experimentation, Conclusion and Theory formulation. 1. Observation: This is the first step in scientific method.It is either an activity of living being (such as human), consisting of receiving knowledge of the outside world through the senses, or the reco rding of data using scientific instruments. Observations that are made using the senses are said to be direct observation, while indirect observation is a situation where data are recorded using scientific instruments. In science, anything that cannot be observed cannot be investigated scientifically. For instance, it is easy to observe that when a stone is thrown up, it must always come down.Also, someone can observe plant growing in the dark produced pale yellow color instead of the normal green. Observations can be classified into two: (a)Spontaneous or passive observation: These are unexpected observations which arise from impulse or inclination, rather than from planning or response to situations. This type of observation begins with one noticing an object or event. Observation can only be meaningful if observer either consciously or unconsciously relates observations with relevant knowledge. (b)Induced or active observation: These are deliberate or intentional observations.In this case, the researcher carefully plans on how to study an object, a process, an event or response to a situation. Scientific observation can be enhanced by developing the habit of watching things with an active enquiring mind. A good observation comes after so many errors and corrections; more so, it should be observed independently by other scientist and report the same thing. 2. Problem definition: After an observation has been made, the hypothetical student becomes curious, for instance, he will decide to find out why a stone always comes down when thrown up.To be able to define a problem, questions must be asked. Just like good observation, to be of value to science a good question must be relevant and it must be testable. 3. Hypothesis: Once questions have been raised over a certain phenomenon, a good scientist then guesses what the answer to the question might be. This assumed answer is called a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon or alternat ively a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a set of phenomena. Normally hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model.Sometimes, but not always, they can also be formulated as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon being studied has some characteristics and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristics. Not all hypotheses relating to a particular problem are valid. The only way to decide which hypothesis is correct or valid is to test each of the hypotheses. This is where scientific experiments are important.The outcome of the experiment could lead to; i. Acceptance of the hypothesis ii. Modification of the hypothesis or iii. Rejection of the hypothesis. Once a hypothesis is modified or new once formulated, they must be tested afresh for validity by performing new experiments. Clearly, the guessing an d guess testing might go on for years and a right answer might never be found. Much faster progress would be made if the number of hypotheses were few. The amount of previous knowledge a scientist has, enables him to achieve this. 4. Experimentation:This is a technique for dealing with observational errors whereby a deliberate controlled of some properties (factors or variables) under different conditions is applied to see what varies or what remain the same. Once guesses are made, they can be tested by experiments. If test results contradict predictions, then hypotheses are called to question and explanations may be sought. Sometimes experiments are conducted incorrectly and are at fault. If the results confirm predictions, then the hypotheses are considered likely to be correct but might still be wrong are subject to further testing. . Conclusion: They are reached after analyses of experimental results are made . Conclusions may sometimes include in clear terms the acceptance or r ejection of a hypothesis. The hypothesis can also be redefined, modified and clarified when the situation arises. Some other conclusions may even be overthrown and discarded. For example, if after a controlled experiment involving only one variable, one may conclude that the other factors beside the one varied may be responsible for the observed problem/phenomenon. 6. Theory Formulation:A scientific theory comprises a collection of concepts, including abstractions of observable phenomena expressed as quantifiable properties, together with rules (called scientific laws) that express relationships between observations of such concepts. A scientific theory is constructed to conform to available empirical data about such observations, and is put forth as a principle or body of principles for explaining a class of phenomena. A theory is usually proposed when a hypothesis has been supported by really convincing evidence. This evidence must be obtainable in many different laboratories and by many researchers.Theories are open to tests, revisions, and tentative acceptance or rejection. As soon as new information is observed in the course of applying the theory, such existing or established theory is revised. Application of scientific method: Whether the scientific method can legitimately and fruitfully be used in the social sciences, Art, and in the socio-natural or hybrid sciences such as psychology and linguistics, has been a subject of controversy. The history of these sciences shows conclusively that the scientific method has been fruitful whenever it has actually been employed.For the pure sciences, the use of the scientific method stands out as a major characteristic aspect of their researches; its absence, therefore, is a sure indicator of non-science. In other words, a discipline where the scientific method plays no role is not a science. Thus, such field as theology, literacy criticism, psychoanalysis, homeopathy, graphology, and palmistry can hardly be regar ded as scientific. Application: Scientific method can be applied in real life situation as well as in scientific discoveries. Creative and Critical Thinking:Decision making is part of our daily activities and the quality of our decision could affect our lives and sometimes the lives of other people. For instance, imagine a cook in a restaurant who in trying to add salt to soup, pick a bottle containing cyanide instead; or when quality control officers in a flour company or a water board for instance, fail to take good decision. Many lives could be affected. The quality of our day to day decision depends to a great extent on the quality/procedure of our thinking. Effective thinking procedure consists basically of: . Creative thinking: is the type of thinking that is patterned towards formation of possible solution of problem or possible explanations of a phenomenon. 2. Critical thinking: is a purposeful reflective judgment concerning what to believe or what to do. Critical thinking c alls for the ability to: †¢Recognize problems, to find workable means for meeting those problems †¢Understand the importance of prioritization and order of precedence in problem solving †¢Gather and marshal pertinent (relevant) information †¢Recognize unstated assumptions and values Comprehend and use language with accuracy, clarity, and discernment †¢Interpret data, to appraise evidence and evaluate arguments †¢Recognize the existence (or non-existence) of logical relationships between propositions †¢Draw warranted conclusions and generalizations †¢Put to test the conclusions and generalizations at which one arrives †¢Reconstruct one's patterns of beliefs on the basis of wider experience †¢Render accurate judgments about specific things and qualities in everyday life Note: That an effective thinking must be creative as well as critical.Thus, an effective thinker (good scientist) must be able to create solution and criticize existing ones. The six steps of scientific methods actually cover these types of thinking; if one is to have real assurance that his/her final decision is sound, then all phases/steps must be completed. Effective thinking requires practice if it must be mastered. The amount of success one gets in effective thinking depends on how objective one is in viewing things (he/ she and the world) without bias.Willingness to concentrate on the pursuit of truth, taking up all problems and openness to one’s feelings is essential tools for objectivity. For the later, one must be able to discern when one’s feelings are relevant or not. Science and Technology in the Society and Service of Man: Science: This is an institution, a method or process of acquiring knowledge. It is the study of the physical and natural world and phenomenon, especially by using systematic observation and experiment. It is a systematically organized body of knowledge about a particular subject e. g. Chemistry, Physic s etc. It is omething studied or performed methodically; an activity that is the object of careful study or that is carried out according to a developed method. Science is both the process and product of investigation and research. Technology: Technology is defined as the application of scientific knowledge and research, with the aim of developing products or processes for the use of man. It consists of the practical knowledge of what can be done and how. It is not a body of theoretically related laws and principles. It is characterized by the techniques, devices, procedures, processes and materials.It is more of a collection of practical information that can be used to do something. Example: From agriculture, say a large crop of vegetables is in danger of destruction by insects, and agricultural scientists have already developed insecticides to be used to fight the insects. If a decision is taken to spray the insecticides from an airplane, that decision is made by an agricultural e ngineer. He will put economic and environmental factors into consideration in making the decision. All the techniques, procedures and materials used make up the technology of insecticides spraying from an airplane.It is important to note that in spite of the seeming difference between science and technology, they are intimately linked, or symbiotic. This is because technology will be crippled and blinded, if not for the new knowledge which science provides it. Science on the other hand will not progress much, if technology does not supply it with new instruments, new techniques and new power. For example the practice of photography (technology) originated before the theory of photographic process was formulated (science). Photographic materials were made by trial and error.Up till about 1950’s, the methods used in manufacturing photographic materials were a little advanced than the basic science of the photographic process. A point was reached however, when progress in photog raphy became slow. Progress was only accelerated when the physical chemistry underlying photography process was understood. X-rays were discovered through scientific research. The knowledge of theses x-rays machines. These x-ray machines, in turn now help scientific researchers to examine, for example the arrangement of atoms in crystals. So both science and technology go hand in hand. What Motivates Scientist and Technologists?What drives the scientist when he is acting as a scientist is the longing to know and understand. The key word here is curiosity. The scientist is curious to know and understand nature. He is not bothered about application of his knowledge. Other spirits of inquiry includes: 1. A questioning of all things 2. A search for data and relations that give meaning 3. A demand for verification 4. A respect for logic (sensible rational thought and argument rather than ideas that are influenced by emotion) What drives the technologist on the other hand is the desire to translate ideas and plans into concrete products or processes.The key word is know-how. His/ Her aim is to produce things and not to formulate theories about the devices and the techniques used in the process. It is important to note that the ideas implemented by the technologist are derived both from science and non-science areas. The corresponding plans are often developed by engineers. The Beginning and Importance of Technology in Human Affairs: In his desire to provide for his basic needs of food, clothing and shelter, he made and used tools (origin of technology). With time, man not only sought to satisfy his needs but also his wants.Technology also helped man to get what he wanted. These include play, leisure, houses, travelling, exotic foods, faster communication with others etc. Technology is as old as man himself. Man’s earliest tools were his hands and teeth. He graduated to stones, and then to sticks shaped to be used as tools. As time goes on, he developed tools of special types to be used for hunting, fishing and the making of clothes and shelters. Man’s technical progress is believed to be governed by two elements, which are: 1. Discovery 2. Invention A discovery is a new way of looking at an old phenomenon.Invention however, is defined as a mental process in which various discoveries and observations are combined and guided by experience into some new tool or operation. It is important to note that much experience is needed to lead to truly important inventions. The next stage in the evolution of technology is the discovery of fire. It is the most important discovery of Stone Age man. He used the fire to warm himself and to prepare tastier food. Fire then led to the birth of cooking and subsequently to the invention of suitable kitchen utensils and cooking methods such as baking, frying, steaming etc. Can you imagine what it’s like to eat uncooked food? ) The discovery of fire was therefore a very important event. Man later began to cultivate his own crops and rear animals for a more regular supply of food. This led to the establishment of communities. He domesticated animals and developed agricultural tools. He made textiles, produced pottery, invented the wheel and the sail to improve his transportation. Man also learned to mine and utilize metals such as copper and iron. The Importance of Science, Technology and Inventions:The factors that distinguish our age (20th century upwards) from the past are: 1. The recognition of the importance of science and technology in human affairs 2. The increased pace of scientific and technological development (which makes it part and parcel of our daily living) and 3. The realization that science and technology are not simply a limited or local factor. It encompasses all men everywhere, and is interrelated with nearly all human endeavors. The 20th century has been characterized by rapid advances in science, technology and inventions.We all feel the impact of them in our daily lives as well as in our social and political institutions. For instance, modern man has replaced the implements and tools of primitive man with tractors and ploughs for tilling the soil. This represents a higher level of technology. The hydrogen bomb, nuclear weapons/ missiles have replaced the bow and arrow technologies of the old eras. Even on the home front, housekeeping has been happily made easier for the housewives with the introduction of labor saving machines such as microwave and electric ovens, vacuum cleaners etc.Without doubt, the standard of living of a nation depends on science, technology and inventions. Developing nations such as Nigeria are beginning to realize one essential difference between them and the so-called developed nations. This is because of the fact that these developed nations have been able to create, master and use modern science and technology. This means that science, technology and invention form the foundation of modern existence. A highly developed education and research programs in the basic sciences are needed by any country that would want a secure and stable society.Knowledge of the basic sciences such as Physics, Biology and Chemistry are of indispensable value because it is through their research efforts that technological growth can take place. The stable society should be one where industrialization, public health care, advanced agriculture etc. can flourish. Long-term progress is only possible if a percentage of government funds are used for teaching and research. Renewable and Non-renewable Resources, Man and His Energy Environment: Energy: Energy can be defined as follows: 1. Energy is the strength and vitality needed to do vigorous activity 2.Energy is the ability of matter or radiation to do work Energy can be derived from physical resources to provide light, heat, current, voltage etc. Energy Sources: There are five ultimate sources of energy namely: 1. Sun 2. Motion and the gravitation potential of the sun, the moon and the earth. 3. Geothermal energy from cooling, chemical reactions and radioactive decay in the earth. 4. Nuclear reaction 5. Chemical reactions Among all these, energy sources can be grouped into two, namely: 1. Renewable and 2. Non-renewable energy resourcesRenewable energies are derived from sources 1, 2, 3 and 4, while non-renewable energies are derived from 1, 3, 4 and 5. Renewable Energy (Infinite Energy): This is energy obtained from continuous and repetitive current of energy occurring in the natural environment as a current or flow irrespective of there been a man-made device to intercept or harness the power. These energy resources are infinite and inexhaustible and their development requires investment in sophisticated technologies. Example of renewable energy resources are: 1. Wood and biomass: – Energy from trees and plants (e. . corn, can be converted to alcohol and ethanol, cassava to ethanol etc. ) 2. Hydroelectric power: – Energ y from water (Though to an extent not regarded as renewable resources. ) 3. Solar energy: – Energy from the Sun. 4. Wave energy: – Energy due to movement of ocean waters. 5. Tidal energy: – Energy from rise and fall of sea waters. 6. Fission nuclear energy: – Energy due to splitting of atoms. 7. Fusion nuclear energy: – Energy due to combining atoms. 8. Wind energy: – Energy due to air movement. 9. Geothermal energy: – Thermal energy from earth’s core etc.Non-Renewable Energy (Finite Energy): This is obtained from static/ stationary store of energy that remains bound unless released by human interaction e. g. nuclear fuel (Uranium), fossil fuel of coal, oil and natural gases. Note that the energy is initially an isolated potential and external action is required to initiate the supply of energy for practical purposes. These energy resources have limited life span, and also called exhaustible energy resources. Examples of non-re newable energy resources are: 1. Coal: – is a combustible sedimentary rock formed from the remains of plant life. 2.Petroleum energy: – Energy formed by decomposition of living matter mainly from marine organisms. 3. Natural gas: – Crude oil in reservoirs is always accomplished by a mixture of gas called natural gas. The principal component is methane CH4 about 85-95%. The remainder is mainly composed of ethane, propane and butane (hydrocarbons). 4. Shale oil: – Energy from solid or semi-solid of petroleum and natural gas. Shale oil cannot be recovered by conventional methods of petroleum production. They are sometimes referred to as oil or tar sand. 5. Peat: – A shaped block dug from a bog and dried for fuel.Uranium (U-235, U-236, U-238): – Is a common constituent of continental rock with an average crystal concentration of about 2 parts per million (2ppm). Concentration of Ore quality is generally in 2000-10,000ppm range i. e 0. 5-1. 0%. F ossil Fuels: – Encompasses coals, oil, natural gas, petroleum, shale oil etc. Energy Production and Environmental Damage: 1. Hydroelectric Power: – is widely utilized world-wide. It is a clean energy source but has certain disadvantages such as: * Destruction of natural vegetation * Destruction of farmlands * It is capital intensive Diverting waters by hydroelectric power displaces population and loss of agricultural farmlands. * Changes of river courses may affect the animal, plant and fish lives. 2. Environmental Impacts of Wind Power: – * Causes local noise pollution and electromagnetic interference. * Wind power is seen by others unsightly (not pleasant to look at), since the windiest sites are in areas of outstanding natural beauty, natural parks, and other scenic sites. 3. Tidal Energy Environmental Impacts: – Besides the high cost of capital, * It weakens fish reproduction. The ability of estuaries (wide tidal river mouth) to support wintering (col dness) and migrating bird’s population could be affected (though this area needs more research). * Tidal barrages can adversely affect migrating and spawning fish population (i. e. deposits of fish, frog’s eggs). 4. Environmental Impacts of Wave Power: – The environmental impacts are minimal; however the reliability of the technology is questionable. 5. Environmental Impacts of Solar Power: – * It is very expensive but environmentally friendly. 6. Environmental Impacts of Geothermal Energy: – Carbon dioxide CO2 and hydrogensulphide HS2 emission may be high (greenhouse gases). * Sinking land above geothermal wells can cause contamination of water by saline and possible toxic water (though these problems can be managed successfully). * Occupies plenty farmlands. 7. Environment Impacts of Biomass: – * Produces greenhouse gases and small amount of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s). * Waste disposals problems (Available land for disposals and da ngers from the bi-products). 8. Environmental Impacts of Fossil Fuels: – * Open cast mining and piling of waste scar (damage) landscape. Leakages of oil and gas from pipelines and installation also cause environmental pollution problems. * Combustion of fossil fuel can cause acid rain. * Combustion of fossil fuels produce greenhouse gases Acid Rain: It occurs because of the atmospheric continual effort to cleanse itself off various pollutants that are introduced into air. The water droplets in clouds absorb (hold) particulate matter and gas molecules out of the air. Not all such substances are removed by rain or precipitation but instead remain suspended in clouds and moisture. POLLUTIONPollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i. e. physical systems or living organisms. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat, or light. Pollutants, t he elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Thus a pollutant can be defined as a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil.Three factors determine the severity of a pollutant: its chemical nature, the concentration and the persistence. Some pollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not persist in the environment in the long term. However the degradation products of some pollutants are themselves polluting such as the products DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene) and DDD (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane) produced from degradation of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane). Pollution is often classed as point source or non-point source pollution. Point Source PollutionA point source of pollution is a single identifiable localized source of air, water, thermal, and noise or light pollution. A point source has negligible extent, distinguishi ng it from other pollution source geometries. The sources are called point sources because in mathematical modeling, they can be approximated as a mathematical point to simplify analysis. Pollution point sources are identical to other physics, engineering, optics and chemistry point sources and include: * Water pollution from an oil refinery wastewater discharge outlet * Noise pollution from a jet engine Disruptive seismic vibration from a localized seismic study * Light pollution from an intrusive street light * Thermal pollution from an industrial process outfall * Radio emissions from an interference-producing electrical device Types of air pollution sources which have finite extent are line sources, area sources and volume sources. Air pollution sources are also often categorized as either stationary or mobile. Non-Point Source PollutionNon-point source (NPS) pollution is water pollution affecting a water body from diffuse sources, such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a river, or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. Nonpoint source pollution can be contrasted with point source pollution, where discharges occur to a body of water at a single location, such as discharges from a chemical factory, urban runoff from a roadway storm drain or from ships at sea. NPS may derive from many different sources with no specific solution to rectify the problem, making it difficult to regulate. Forms of pollutionThe major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular pollutants relevant to each of them: * Air pollution, the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common gaseous air pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter or fine dust is characterized by their micrometer sizePM10to PM2. 5. * Light pollu tion, includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical interference. Littering * Noise pollution, which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar. * Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons. * Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics, such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment. (See alpha emitters and actinides in the environment. * Thermal pollution is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant. * Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash or municipal solid waste. * Water pollution, by the release of waste products and contaminants into surface runoff into river drainage systems, leaching into groundwater, liquid spills, wastewater discharges, eutrophication and littering. Sources and CausesAir pollution comes from both natural and man-made sources. Though globally, man-made pollutants from combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and warfare are increasingly significant in the air pollution equation. Environmental effects of textile wastes and other material: Textiles are types of fabrics made by weaving, or knitting. The principal raw materials used in textile manufacture are the natural fibers and synthetic (man-made) fibers 1. Natural fibers: These include (a) Vegetable fibers e. g. cotton, flax and hemp; (b) Animal fibers e. g. heep’s wool; and (c) Mineral fiber e. g. asbestos 2. Synthetic fibers: (a) They are polymers based on petroleum and cellulose such as nylon Textiles are manufactured to perform a wide range of roles. They are made up of different types of fibers that are mixed in varying proportions. The manufacture of natural textiles involves a wide variety of physical and chemical processes. The processes depend on the fiber type and the specification of the fabric product for use in clothing, furnishings or for industrial applications. Textile wastes and environmental effects: a) Textile wastes originate from both the household (consumer) and the industrial (manufacturing) sectors. (b) Consumer waste comprises wastes dumped in dust bins or that separated for reuse or recycling e. g. unwanted clothing and carpets. (c) Manufacturing waste originates from the processing of raw materials and in the fabrication and production of finished textiles and garments which include cuttings and rejected materials. Textile wastes can be classified thus: 1. Dangerous packaging wastes: These wastes come from the exhaustion of the laboratory chemical reactive. E. g. paper packaging wastes, plastic packaging w astes and metallic packaging wastes. 2. Non-dangerous packaging wastes: These come from the packaging of raw textile material of different types (such as fibers, yarns, fabrics) pieces of paper packaging wastes (such as boxes, bags, cardboard). 3. Non-dangerous wastes: Include textile wastes that are retained on equipment filters, raw materials and fibers, yarn, woven, knitted, cut offs, threads and defective items. Others are sludge for water treatment and also printing toners. 4.Dangerous wastes: These also include grease and oil impregnated rags, used oils – solvent wastes, fluorescent tubes – batteries (equipment and transport vehicles), chemical wastes, dyes, print pastes. , contaminated textile wastes with chemicals, wastes of electric and electronic equipment (with metals)etc. Environmental Effects: The environmental risks that are associated with the manufacture of clothing are limited with few significant risks. (a) Packaging wastes litter the land and occupy spaces that may be used for other purposes such as agric. b) The cutting and working of material generates significant quantities of small particles of fabric. These are called â€Å"fly† in the industries. High levels of fly and dust within buildings cause occupational health hazards (primarily respiratory). If uncontrolled, emissions of fly and dust may cause and nuisance problems outside the building. Lastly, If not properly cleaned, buildup of fly on machines can ignite and cause fires. (c) Textile waste in incinerators: These emit organic substances through incinerator chimneys. Organic substances include dioxins, heavy metals, acidic gases and dust particles.All these are potentially harmful to both humans and the environment. (d) Textile waste in landfills: * This contributes to the formation of leach- ate as it decomposes. * This has the potential to contaminate both surface and groundwater sources. * Methane gas (a major greenhouse gas, and a significant contributor to global warming) is also formed as a result of decay of textile waste in landfill. However, the gas can be utilized of collected. * Decomposition of organic fibers and yarns such as wool produces large amounts of ammonia and methane.Ammonia is highly toxic in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. It can be toxic in gaseous form and has the potential to increase nitrogen in drinking water. These have adverse effect on humans. Cellulose-based synthetics decay at a faster rate than chemical-based synthetics. Synthetic chemical fibers can prolong the adverse effects of both leachate and gas production due the length of time it takes for them to decay. Disposal: * Textile waste can be incinerated with other materials to produce energy (bottom fly ash). Bottom ash, can be used for construction purposes. * Fly ash used as a cement replacement. * Use of chrome substitutes such as aluminum, titanium, cod oil * Improved waste water treatment. * Good management environmental practices. Range from staff education and training. * Improving the quality and quantity of chemicals used; * Optimizing use of energy, water consumption etc. CHEMICAL AND RADIOCHEMICAL HAZARDS 1. RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS The need to understand what radiochemical substances are want danger they pose to the end users cannot be over emphasized.This important view should be embraced by all whether you are in the humanities or in science and technology discipline. Our environment must be kept safe for the benefit of life on our beautiful planet Radiochemical material and associated hazards are not new especially considering when radioactivity was first discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896. This discovery revolutionized the fields of physics and chemistry as new products and services relating to both the positive and negative uses to which it was put to use.Radiochemical hazards are generally associated with working with chemical and radioactive substances at any place but usually in the laboratories . The most important negative use to which radioactivity has been put to use was in the production and use of the nuclear bombs (atomic bombs) in Hiroshima and Nagasaki during the Second World War by the Americans. This marked the end of the war. Some of the benefits derived from the application of radioactivity are found in the field of medicine where specialized radiations have been used to treat cancer and tumors.It is used in x-ray where internal organs are investigated. In science, it has been used to study reaction mechanisms and structural analysis of materials. It is also used in generating electricity from nuclear reactions. These radioactive materials or chemicals have some health hazards associated with their usage, for example, the inventor of the word â€Å"radioactivity† Marie Curie died from a disease of the bone marrow as a result of her long term exposure to radioactive materials in 1934 at age 66.You will recall the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident in whic h many people died and several others were exposed to very high doses of radiations. Recently also, Japan woke up with a Tsunami that defercited the country their by damaging four of their nuclear reactors at Fukushima resulting in the death of many people and releasing very dangerous radiations to the environment which further poses serious health risk to life. Radioactive chemicals can render people impotent or result in the birth of medically handicapped children.Let us take a pause and define some basic concepts in radiation chemistry/physics. 2. DEFINITIONS OF SOME TECHNICAL TERMS * Radioactive: – Describes a substance such as uranium or plutonium that emits energy in the form of streams of particles, owing to the decaying of its unstable atoms. This energy can be damaging or fatal to the health of people exposed to it. * Hazardous: – Potentially very dangerous to living beings or the environment. * Radiotoxic: – Of toxic effect of radiation-relating to the toxic effects of radiation of radio-active substances. Radioactivity: – The breakdown of heavy atom into simple ones. * Radioactive substances (chemicals): – These are substances which are regarded as sources of ionizing radiations which may be either sealed or unsealed. Sealed sources (small) consist of radioactive materials permanently enclosed in containers e. g. Radium needles (226Ra), Radio cobalt needles (60Co), Radio gold (198Au), Radon seeds (222R), Radio tantalum (182Ta), Radio trium (90Y), Caesium needles (137Ce), Radio strontium plaques (90St). Large sealed sources for radiotherapy are normally charged with Cobalt 60 or Caesium 137. Chemical hazard: – Chemical hazard is the danger caused by chemicals to the environment and people. A chemical hazard arises from contamination with harmful or potentially harmful chemicals. Please take note of the following; * Toxic chemicals * Hazardous wastes * Hazardous chemicals * Radiochemistry: – Branch of c hemistry that deals with radioactive elements and their applications. * Radiology: – The branch of medicine that deals with the use of X-rays and radioactive substances such as radium the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. The science of radiation and radioactive substances and their application e. g. n structural analysis. * Hazardous wastes: – These are toxic byproducts of various processes, a byproduct of manufacturing processes or nuclear processing that is toxic and presents a potential treat to people and the environment. * Radioactive wastes: – Used radioactive materials waste. Material that is radioactive, particularly the waste from nuclear reactors and medical treatment and research. * Radioactive series: – Series of atom types; a series of related atom types nuclides of radioactive isotopes, each of which is transformed into the next by emission of an elementary particle until a stable nuclei is obtained.There are three (3) such substances, t he thorium, the uranium and the actinium and almost all naturally occurring radioactive isotopes belonging to one of them. 3. NATURAL SOURCES OF RADIATION The heavy radioactive elements found in nature are members of three different series of elements beginning with uranium, thorium and actinium. Since the 1970s, concern has grown over exposure of individuals to radon in homes and other buildings. Because radon is a gas, it can percolate from uranium bearing rocks, subsoil, or building materials into the air within a building.Radon itself is not a health threat because it is an un-reactive noble gas. It enters and exits the beings without remaining in the body. However, its decay product, polonium, from the oxygen family, is more reactive. Polonium can adhere to dust particles in the air that can become trapped in the lungs. Being an ? (alpha) emitter, polonium and its decay products are potentially cancer causing agents. As is always the case, evaluating the seriousness of the heal th threat from such a substance in the environment is difficult. 4. SOURCES OF RADIATIONS * Buildings/paint * Sun Nuclear plants * X-ray units in hospital (radiology dept) * Electronic gadgets * Contaminated air * Irradiated foods (as preservatives) * In research laboratories. (List more) 5. RADIATION AND MATTER During the decay of radioactive nuclide, mass is lost and energy is released. The nuclei and particles collide with the atoms and molecules of the surroundings. In this process valence electrons may be knocked of atoms and molecules to produce ions or pulled up to form or breakdown bonds. The end products are electromagnetic radiations (x-ray, ? -rays, ? -rays, ? -rays, neutrons etc. re formed. ) * Alpha rays (or ? -rays particles): -are of limited interest in diagnosis and therapy because they lack penetration, even when emitted at high energy. They have a high ionizing power. 24He=alpha ray, it is a+ve particle They are stopped by a sheet of paper or by the dead layer of t he skin. However, if ? emitting radionuclide’s enter the body (by ingestion or in halation or through open wounds) the alpha rays may cause serious injuries. * Beta rays (or ? -ray particles): -The rays are negatively charged particles of high penetrating power and high velocity.They are deflected toward the positive part of magnetic field. They are used medically for the treatment of superficial lesions. * Gamma rays (? -rays): – Like x-rays, are electromagnetic radiation. Unsealed gamma emitting sources are widely used in nuclear medicine for diagnosis and therapy; they have extremely high penetrating power, then ? and ? rays. The ray is very dangerous to living creatures because they can cause damage to the living tissues. 6. MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS RADIOCHEMICALS As has been discussed earlier, radiochemical have found a lot beneficial uses to man.But the major problem is how to handle them in such a way that they do not cause danger health problems to man. In the l ight of these, all necessary protective measures must be put in place to protect the users ’e . g; * All workers in nuclear sites or radiologists must wear protective materials, and such plants must be highly secured to minimize chances of accidents or over exposures. * The handling of nuclear wastes must be such that both short and long term dangers associated with the disposal are taken into consideration.For example, nuclear waste should not be dumped in the sea as exposure to life under the sea will definitely affect man (consumer). Also, burying them under the ground has its dangers, as the shifting of the earth crust could make these waste come in contact with major sources of water and thus will affect life. * Radioactive liquids should not be poured into sinks but into designated containers. Also radioactive waste cans’ for adequate disposal by burial * At the close of day; all parts of the body, including clothing should be thoroughly monitored.This is best do ne by wearing radioactive dictators like the pocket Dosimeter or any other pocket ionization chamber * Cosmetics should never be applied on the skin of any worker in that the radiochemical can easily perch on them. * Before leaving the laboratory, workers should check themselves from radiation with beta-gamma survey meters * Nobody should work with radioactive materials if he has a broken skin-unless he wears gloves. 7. CHEMICAL HAZARDS For the purposes of this work, all chemicals used in routine laboratory, hemical manufacturing process and general research work are considered as hazardous, hence it is very important we understand this and follow strictly those safety rules guiding their usage. 8. CLASSES OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS * Class 1 – Explosives * Class 2 – Compresses gases and poisonous gases * Class 3 – Flammable liquids * Class 4 – Flammable solids 9. MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS As with radioactive materials, hazardous chemicals must be pro perly handle so as to prevent any health risk associated with their usage either directly or indirectly.Because of this similar safety precautions must be observed as is the case with radiochemical materials In addition the following general safety rules must be observed when handling chemicals. 10. LABORATORY SAFETY General Safety Guidelines for Chemical Lab * Material Safety Data Sheets: Know the hazard potential of each chemical you are using. Familiarize yourself with the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for the materials you are using. * Personal Protection and First Aid * Wear eye protection (safety glasses or goggles) whenever you are working with material that can injure your eyes, especially acids, bases, and oxidizers. If you wear contact lenses, familiarize yourself with the special precautions. * Know the location of the emergency eye-wash stations, showers and first aid kits. Familiarize yourself with the operation of the eye wash station and shower. First aid kit is located in the chemistry lab. * Wear hand protection when handling corrosive or hazardous materials. The use of nitrile rubber is recommended when handling concentrated corrosive materials or organic solvents. Disposable PVC examining gloves offer minimal protection and are permeable to many organic substances. Check rubber gloves for holes and cracks before using. Do not touch surfaces with contaminated gloves. (Door knobs, equipment bench tops, drawers, etc. ) Rinse gloves well after use. * Open-toed shoes or sandals are not permitted in the chemistry labs. * Use of lab coats is recommended to protect your clothing. Protective aprons should be worn when handling highly corrosive materials. 11. CHEMICAL EMERGENCIES In a chemical emergency do not hesitate to follow these procedures because a spill or contact seems too trivial. It is better to overreact. * For skin contact, flood the affected area with water immediately and continues flooding for at least 15 minutes.If a substantial portion of the body is involved, use a safety shower. If the chemical is toxic, or it its toxic properties are unknown. * For eye contact, flood eyes with water and continue flooding for at least 15 minutes. Remove contact lenses if possible, or move to corner of the eye. * For inhalation or ingestion, follow direction on the product label. In case of spillage of any chemical: * If the volume of spill is greater than 500 ml (1 pint), or any amount of extremely toxic substance is spilled, evacuate and seal the area. * If the volume of spill is less that 500 m. 1 pint) and the substance is not extremely toxic, check the container or MSDS for special instructions. If no instructions are immediately available, encircle and cover the spill with absorbent material until the liquid is adsorbed. Do not flush with water. Neutralize strong acids with sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, or calcium hydroxide after absorbing. (Note: DO NOT absorb hydrofluoric acid- neutralize immediately). * S olid spills are not usually emergencies. If the spilled material is toxic, use damped cloths or paper towels to transfer the material to plastic bags.